Undercurrents of European Modernity and the Foundations of Modern Turkish Conservatism: Bergsonism in Retrospect
2004; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 40; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/00263200410001700329
ISSN1743-7881
Autores Tópico(s)Philosophy, History, and Historiography
ResumoClick to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes S.M. Akural, ‘Kemalist Views on Social Change’, in Jacob M. Landau (ed.), Atatürk and the Modernization of Turkey (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984), p.146, fn.1. See J. Alexander, ‘Between Progress and Apocalypse’, in N.J. Smelser and P. Sztompka (eds.), Rethinking Progress (London: Unwin Hyman, 1990), pp.15–38. The term modernity has been used as defined by Anthony Giddens as the modes of social, political and economic life and organization, which emerged in Europe from about the seventeenth century onwards that subsequently became a world-wide phenomenon in their influence. See Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990). See Şerif Mardin, Religion, Society and Modernity in Turkey (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1999). For an account of transcendentalist politics in Turkey, see Metin Heper, The State Tradition in Turkey (Huntingdon: Eothen Press, 1985). For the ideological foundations of Kemalism see Ergun Özbudun and Ali Kazancıgil (eds.), Atatürk: The Founder of a Modern State (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1981). For the transformation of positivism into the Western ideology of progress see Peter Allan Dale, In Pursuit of Scientific Culture: Science, Art and Society in the Victorian Age (Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1989). For an excellent work on how Bergsonism shaped the artistic genres and the politics of the avant-garde in Europe see Ark Antliff, Inventing Bergson (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993). For an innovative philosophical account of modernity see Jurgen Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures, tr. Frederick G. Lawrence (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987). See also Robert Pippin, Modernism as a Philosophical Problem, On the Dissatisfactions of European High Culture (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999). See Tony Spybey, Social Change, Development, and Dependency: Modernity, Colonialism and the Development of the West (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1992). See Robert Nispet, History of the Idea of Progress (New York: Basic Books, 1980). See H.H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (eds.), From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1948). H.N. Jahnke and M. Otte, Epistemological and Social Problems of the Sciences in the Early Nineteenth Century (Boston: D. Reidel Publications, 1981), p.80. For an excellent study on scientism, see Tom Sorell, Scientism: Philosophy and the Infatuation with Science (London: Routledge, 1991). Jeffrey C. Alexander, Fin de Siècle Social Theory (London: Verso, 1995), p.2. Ibid. See W.M. Simon, European Positivism in the Nineteenth Century; An Essay In Intellectual History (Port Washington, NY, Kennikat Press, 1972). Murtaza Korlaelçi, Pozitivizmin Türkiye'ye Girişi ve İlk Etkileri [The Entry of Positivism to Turkey and Its First Impacts] (İstanbul: İnsan Yayınları, 1986), pp.129–33. Şerif Mardin, ‘The Impact of the French Revolution on the Ottoman Empire’, International Social Science Journal, 41, 1 (1989), pp.17,18. For the nineteenth–century Ottoman conception of civilization see Tuncer Baykara, Osmanlılarda Medeniyet Kavramı ve Ondokuzuncu Yüzyıla Dair Araştırmalar [The Concept of Civilization in the Ottomans and Research on the Nineteenth Century] (İzmir: Akademi Kitabevi, 1992). Mardin, ‘The Impact of French Revolution on the Ottoman Empire’, pp.17, 18. Niyazi Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey (Montreal: McGill University Press 1969), p.159. Ibid, p.216. See, Mardin, ‘The Impact’, pp.17, 31. See M. Şükrü Hanioğlu, Young Turks in Opposition 1902–1908 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995). Charles MacFarlane, Turkey and Its Destiny II (Philadelphia: np, 1850), pp.163–5, as cited in Berkes, The Development of Secularism in Turkey, pp.118,294. Ibid., pp.199, 265. For the impact of Enlightenment thought on Ottoman intellectual life see Hilmi Ziya Ülken, Türkiye'de Çağdaş Düşünce Tarihi [History of Modern Thought in Turkey] 2nd edn., (İstanbul: Ülken Yayınları, 1979 [1966]), pp.64–70. Berkes, The Development, p.295 Ibid. For the new literary genre see Osman Nuri Ekiz and Müslim Ergül (eds.), Servet-i Fünûn'dan Cumhuriyet'e Kadar Yeni Türk Edebiyatı Antolojisi [The Anthology of Turkish Literature from The Wealth of Sciences to the Republic] (İstanbul: Toker Yayınları, 1988) Ibid., pp.163–97. See also Hanioğlu, Preparation for A Revolution, The Young Turks, 1902–1908 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp.28–46, 82–91. For the political use of sociology by the Young Turk groups see Hanioğlu, Young Turks in Opposition 1902–1908, pp.10, 16–28, 200–8. For a seminal work on Young Turk politics see Feroz Ahmad, The Young Turks: The Committee of Union and Progress in Turkish Politics, 1908–1914 (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1969). See also Hanioğlu, Preparation for a Revolution, The Young Turks, 1902–1908, pp.210–89. See Feroz Ahmad and Fatmagül Berktay, İtttihadçılıktan Kemalizme (From Unionism to Kemalism) (İstanbul: Sistem Ofset Yay. ve Ticaret Ltd., 1985). For the development of nationalism within the Young Turk ranks see Masami Arai, Turkish Nationalism in the Young Turk Era (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1992). For the nationalist teachings of Ziya Gökalp see Uriel Heyd, Foundations of Turkish Nationalism; the Life and Teachings of Ziya Gökalp (London: The Harvill Press Ltd, 1950). See Hanioğlu, The Young Turks in Opposition, 1902–1908, pp.10–23, 203–13. The ill-defined marriage between positivism and reformist nationalism can not be taken as an event specific to the Ottoman modernization when the growing authority of positivism over the nationalist cadres in Mexico and Portuguese by the turn of the nineteenth century is taken into account. For the impact of positivism on the Mexican and Portuguese politics of reformism respectively, see Elizabeth Flower, ‘The Mexican Revolt Against Positivism’, The Journal of the History of Ideas, 10, Jan. (1949), pp.115–29; Douglas L. Wheeler, ‘The Portuguese Revolution of 1910’, The Journal of Modern History, 44, 2 (1972), pp.172–94. See Arnold Toynbee, Civilization on Trial (New York: Oxford University Press, 1948). For an evaluation of the idea of progress see Georg G. Iggers, ‘The Idea of Progress: A Critical Reassessment’, The American Historical Review, 71, 1, Oct. (1965), pp.1–17. For the new perceptions of the West see David C. Gordon, Images of the West: Third World Perspectives (Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield, 1989). For the nationalist thought of Yusuf Akçura see François Georgeon, Türk Milliyetçiliğinin Kökenleri: Yusuf Akçura (1876–1935) [The Foundations of Turkish Nationalism: Yusuf Akçura (1876–1935)], tr. Alev Er (İstanbul: Yurt Yayınları, 1999). Mehmet Karakaş, Türk Ulusçuluğunun İnşası [The Construction of Turkish Nationalism] (Ankara: Vadi Yayınları, 2000), p.194. See also Hanioğlu, The Young Turks in Opposition, 1902–1908, pp.210–11. Ülken, Türkiye'de Çağdaş Düşünce Tarihi, pp.304–32. Ibid., pp.307, 309, fn. 479, 313. Heyd in his book entitled Foundations of Turkish Nationalism: The Life and Teachings of Ziya Gökalp underlined the intellectual and political lineages between Gökalp's nationalism and German romanticism. See Heyd, Foundations of Turkish Nationalism: The Life and Teachings of Ziya Gökalp, pp.164–6. See Ziyaeddin Fahri Fındıkoğlu, ‘Türkiye'de Bergsonizm 1’, [Bergsonism in Turkey 1] Cumhuriyet, (İstanbul Daily) 13 Jan. 1941. See also Ülken, Türkiye'de Çağdaş Düşünce Tarihi, pp.229, 313. Horst Widmann, Atatürk ve Üniversite Reformu [Atatürk and the University Reform], tr. Aykut Kazancıgil and Serpil Bozkurt (İstanbul: Kabalcı Yayınevi, 1999). İlhan Tekeli and Selim İlkin, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda Eğitim ve Bilgi Üretim Sisteminin Oluşumu ve Dönüşümü [The Formation and Transformation of the Education and Knowledge Generating System in the Ottoman Empire] (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1993), pp.96–7. Ülken pointed out that Yahya Kemal's poem Üç Tepeler [Three Hills] together with Baltacıoğlu's article entitled Kerbela'ya Giden Derviş [The Dervish Who Goes to Karbala] and Tunç's article Hakiki Hürriyet [Real Freedom] became major ideological and political texts that mirrored the nationalist Bergsonian aspirations. See Ülken, Türkiye'de Çağdaş Düşünce Tarihi, p.376. For the Bergsonian influence on William James see James Deotis Roberts, Faith and Reason: A Comparative Study of Pascal, Bergson and James (Boston: Christopher Publishing House, 1962). See also Lucy Shepard Crawford, The Philosophy of Emile Boutroux as Representative of French Idealism in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Longmans Green, 1924). Ülken, Türkiye'de Çağdaş Düşünce Tarihi, p.376. See Fazlur Rahman, İslam and Modernity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), p.94. For brief biographical notes about Baltacıoğlu, Ağaoğlu and Tunç see Ülken Türkiye'de Çağdaş Düşünce Tarihi, pp.450–7, 408–12, 377–82. For Safa and Ülken respectively, see Beşir Ayvazoğlu, Peyami Safa: Hayatı, Sanatı, Felsefesi, Dramı [Peyami Safa: His Life, Art, Philosophy and Tragedy] (İstanbul: Ötüken Yayınları, 1998); Eyyüp Sanay, Hilmi Ziya Ülken (Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1992). Tunç, ‘Descartes Kongresine Hitab’, [Address to the Descartes Congress] Bilgi Dergisi, XI, 132 (1958), p.17. See Ülken, Yeni Felsefe Cemiyeti ve Türkiye'de Felsefe Cemiyetinin Tarihçesi [The New Philosophy Association and the History of Philosophy Association in Turkey] (İstanbul: Latif Dinçbaş Basımevi, 1944). See Safa, Felsefi Buhran [The Philosophical Crisis] (Ankara: Recep Ulusoğlu Basımevi, 1939); Also see Safa, ‘Bergson ve Zamanımız’, [Bergson and Our Age] Cumhuriyet, 1 Sept. 1937. Safa, ‘Türk Düşüncesi ve Batı Medeniyeti’, [Turkish Thought and Western Civilization] Türk Düşüncesi, 1, 1, 1 Dec. 1953, p.5. See Herbet Spengler, The Decline of the West (New York: Knopf, 1939 [1918]). Safa, ‘Türk Düşüncesi ve Batı Medeniyeti’, p.5. Ibid. Ibid., p.6. Ülken, ‘Bugünün İnsanı I’, [The Human Being of Today I] Türk Düşüncesi, 4/1, 1 March 1954, pp.244–50. Ibid. See also Ülken, ‘Türkiye'de Pozitivizm Temayülü’, [The Current of Positivism in Turkey]; İnsan, 2, 11, 8 April 1939, pp.849–58. Ülken, ‘Türkiye'de Pozitivizm Temayülü’, pp.849–58. Also see Ülken, Aşk Ahlakı [The Piety Ethics] (İstanbul: Cogito Yayınları, 1999 [1931]), pp.332–4. Tunç, Psikolojiye Giriş [Introduction to Psychology] (İstanbul: Pulhan Matbaası, 1949). For a biographical account of Tunç see Hayrani Altıntaş, Mustafa Şekip Tunç (Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı, 1989). For the influence of Charles Blondel on Baltacıoğlu see Ülken, Türkiye'de Çağdaş Düşünce Tarihi, p.456. For the impact of Catholic modernism on the Catholic religious thought see Lawrence Gamache, ‘Defining Modernism: A Religious and Literary Correlation’, Studies in the Literary Imagination, 25, 2 (1992), pp.63–81. For a conservative attempt at formulating a new sense of religiosity see Tunç, Bir Din Felsefesine Doğru [Towards a Philosophy of Religion] (Ankara:Türkiye Yayınevi, 1959). For the intellectual linkages between Wilbois and Baltacıoğlu see Ülken, Türkiye'de Çağdaş Düşünce Tarihi, p.456. See Tunç, ‘Kader ve Kanun’ [Faith and Law], Cumhuriyet, 26 April 1942. Also see Tunç, Bir Din Felsefesine Doğru. For the Italian case see Walter L. Adamson, ‘The Language of Opposition in Early Twentieth-Century Italy: Rhetorical Continuities between Prewar Florentine Avant-Gardism and Mussolini's Fascism’, The Journal of Modern History, 64,1 (1992), p.32. Ibid. See Ülken Aşk Ahlakı, 38–9; ‘Türkiye'de Pozitivizm Temayülü’, pp.849–58. Also see Ülken, Ziya Gökalp (İstanbul: Ahmet Said Matbaası, 1942). See Christopher E. Forth, ‘Nietzsche, Decadence, and Regeneration in France, 1891–95’, Journal of the History of Ideas, 54, 1 (1993), pp.97–117. See also Gordon, Images of the West: Third World Perspectives, p.31. Forth, Ibid., p.98. See also Henry F. May, ‘The Rebellion of the Intellectuals, 1912–1917’, American Quarterly, 8, 2 (1956), p.115; Leonard Krieger, ‘The Intellectuals and European Society’, Political Science Quarterly, 67, 2 (1952), pp.225–47. Arthur Liebert, ‘Contemporary German Philosophy’, The Philosophical Review, 42, 1 (1933), p.39. Ibid., p.45. Ibid., p.47. Ibid. Ibid., p.35. Oswald Ewald, ‘German Philosophy in 1912’, The Philosophical Review, 22, 5 (1913), p.496. Lestek Kolakowski, Bergson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), p.9. See ‘Kültür Nedir?’, [What is Culture?] Kültür Haftası, 1, 15 Dec. 1936, p.1. For a romantic criticism of materialism and mechanism associated with modern culture see ‘Makina ve Kültür’, [Machine and Culture] Kültür Haftası, 15, 23 April 1936, pp.281–2. Frank Tilly, ‘Romanticism and Rationalism’, The Philosophical Review, 22, 2 (1913), p.114. Ibid. Gamache, ‘Defining Modernism: A Religious and Literary Correlation’, pp.63–81. Baltacıoğlu, ‘Halk Partisi'nin Yeni Programı Üzerine’, [On the New Programme of the People's Party] Yeni Adam, 72, 16 May 1935, p.2; See also Tunç, ‘Devlet ve Millet’, [The State and the Nation] Cumhuriyet, 8 Oct. 1942; ‘Eski ve Yeni Dünya Görüşlerimiz’, [Our Old and New Worldviews] Cumhuriyet, 11 Oct. 1942). Baltacıoğlu, ‘Yeni Ahlak Yeni Fikirde Değil, Yeni Sosyetededir’, [New Morality is not in New Idea but in New Society) Yeni Adam, 118, 2 April 1936, p.2. Safa, ‘Ekonomi ve Milliyetçilik’, [Economy and Nationalism] Çınaraltı, 36, 30 May 1942, p.5. Baltacıoğlu, ‘Bizim Cumhuriyetimiz’, [Our Republic] Yeni Adam, 513 (1944), p.2. For a conservative assessment of Kemalist ideology see Safa, ‘İnkılabımızın İdeolojisi’ [The Ideology of Our Revolution] Cumhuriyet, 29 July 1933). See Safa, ‘Türk Düşüncesi ve Batı Medeniyeti’, pp.4–5. See Şevket Süreyya Aydemir, ‘Bergsonizm Yahut Bir Korkunun Felsefi İfadesi’, [Bergsonism or the Philosophical Manifestation of a Fear] Kadro, 11 (1932), pp.43–50. See Tunç, ‘Önsöz’, [Preface] in tr., Tunç, Bergson, Yaratıcı Tekamül [Bergson, Creative Evolution] (İstanbul: M.E. Basımevi, 1947). For Bergsonism see Baltacıoğlu, ‘Teşkilatsız Edebiyat’, [Unorganized Literature] Yeni Adam, 119 (1936), p.2. See also Baltacıoğlu, ‘Bergson,’ Yeni Adam, 4, 22 Jan. 1934, p.5; ‘Henri Bergson’, Yeni Adam, 433, 15 April 1943, pp.3–11. For Wilbois efforts see Emmanuel Leroux, ‘Ethical Thought Since the War’, International Journal of Ethics, 40, 2 (1930), pp.145–78. For Baltacıoğlu's inspirations from Wilbois see Ülken, Türkiye'de Çağdaş Düşünce Tarihi, p.456. Ülken, Yirminci Asır Filozofları, p.11. For Bergson's thoughts on mysticism, religion and morality, see Bergson, Two Sources of Morality and Religion, tr. R. Ashley Audra and Henry Brereton et al. (London: Macmillan, 1935). Tunç, Bir Din Felsefesine Doğru. See also Ülken, Türk Mistisizmini Tetkike Giriş [Introduction to the Study of Turkish Mysticism] (İstanbul: Akşam Matbaası, 1935). See Tunç, Bir Din Felsefesine Doğru. Emilio Gentile, ‘The Struggle for Modernity: Echoes of Dreyfus Affairs in Italian Political Culture, 1889–1912’, Journal of Contemporary History, 33, 4 (1998), pp.497–511. See Tunç, ‘Bugünkü Hayatımızın Akışları’, [The Flows of Our Life Today] in Mehmet Kaplan et al. (eds.), Atatürk Devri Fikir Hayatı [Intellectual Life in Atatürk's Era] Vol. II (Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1992) pp.331–4. See Ahmed Ağaoğlu ‘Basitten Mürekkebe, Sürüden Millete’, [From the Simple to the Complex, From the Herd to the Nation] Cumhuriyet, 20 Nov. 1932. See also Ağaoğlu, ‘Basitten Mürekkebe, Şekilsizlikten Şekilleşmeye Doğru’, [From Simple to the Complex, from Formlessness to the Formation] İnsan, 1, 3, 15 June 1938, pp.204–8. See Baltacıoğlu, Tarih ve Terbiye [History and Education] (İstanbul: Semih Lütfi Suhulet Matbaası, 1935). Also see Ülken, Türk Kozmolojisi, Türk Mitolojisi, Türk Hikmeti, Teknik Tefekkür [Turkish Cosmology, Turkish Mythology, Turkish Wisdom, Technical Thought] (Ankara: Başvekalet Mudevvanat Basımevi, 1935). See Baltacıoğlu, ‘Kadro'ya Göre Yeni Adam, Yeni Adam'a Göre Kadro’, [Yeni Adam According to Kadro, Kadro According to Yeni Adam] Yeni Adam, 17, 23 April 1934, p.11; ‘Türk Rejimini Niçin Severim?’ [Why do I Like the Turkish Regime?] Yeni Adam, 247, 21 Sept. 1939, p.2. Also see Ağaoğlu, Devlet ve Ferd [The State and the Individual] (Ankara: Sanayii Nefize Basımevi, 1933). For further examples see Safa, ‘Demokrasi ve Liberalizm’, [Democracy and Liberalism] Cumhuriyet, 23 July 1933; Safa, ‘Ekonomi ve Milliyetçilik’, [Economy and Nationalism] Çınaraltı, 36, 30 May 1942, p.5. See Karl Manheim, ‘Competition as a Cultural Phenomenon’, in Volker Meja and Nico Stehr (eds.), Knowledge and Politics (London: Routledge, 1990), p.69, as cited in Göran Dahl, Radical Conservatism and the Future of Politics (London: Sage Publications, 1999), p.37. See also Karl Mannheim, Conservatism: A Contribution to the Sociology of Knowledge, tr. David Kettler and Volker Meja (London: Routledge, 1997). Safa, ‘Hayat Karşısında Sistemlerimiz’, [Our Systems vis-à-vis the Life] Cumhuriyet, 11 July 1933. Ülken, Veraset ve Cemiyet [Inheritance and Society] (İstanbul: Kutulmuş Matbaası, 1957 [1924]). Baltacıoğlu, ‘Milli Anane’, [National Tradition] Yeni Adam, 366, 1 Jan. 1942, p.2. See also ‘Eski ve Yeni, Ölü ve Diri’, [Old and New, Death and Alive] Yeni Adam, 340, 3 July 1941, p.2. Like the leading figures of Action Française such as Charles Maurras and his disciples, these intellectuals were much inspired by the actionist philosophy of Bergson. Yet Turkish Bergsonians reached different conclusions by basing their traditionalism on the presentatist Bergsonian philosophy of time. Unlike their French counterparts, Turkish Bergsonians tried to put the actionist philosophy in the service of the Revolution. Action Française was a monarchist movement and – in Stephen Wilsons' words – utilized the ‘irrationalist implications of traditionalism’. Accordingly, Maurras tried to ‘reconcile nationalism and royalism with history and tradition’ and it was ‘the core of the Action Française movement’. See Stephen Wilson's, ‘History and Traditionalism: Maurras and the Action Française’, Journal of the History of Ideas, 29, 3 (1968), p.368. See Safa, Felsefi Buhran. Also see Ülken, ‘Türkiye'de İdealizm Temayülü’ [The Current of Idealism in Turkey], İnsan, 2, 12, 8 May 1942, pp.929–38. Tilly, ‘Romanticism and Rationalism’, p.114. For some examples of conservative criticism of intellectualism see Ülken, Millet ve Tarih Şuuru [Nation and Consciouness of History] (İstanbul Pulhan Matbaası, 1948). For the importance of tradition in nation-building process see Ağaoğlu, İngiltere ve Hindistan, [England and India] (İstanbul: Cumhuriyet Basımevi, 1929). Also see Ağaoğlu, ‘Milliyetçilik Cereyanının Esasları’, [Principles of the Nationalist Current] Hakimiyet-i Milliye, 6 Sept. 1925, in Mehmet Kaplan et al. (ed.), Atatürk Devri Fikir Hayatı [Intellectual Life in Atatürk's Era] vol. I (Ankara: Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1992), pp.115–27. Baltacıoğlu, ‘İnsan Bir Cismi Hendese Değildir’, [Man is not a Subject of Geometry] Yeni Adam, 109, 30 Jan. 1936, p.3. See also Baltacıoğlu, ‘Sistemler ve Hayatlar Mefhumlar ve Gerçekler’, p.3. See Baltacıoğlu, ‘İnsaniyet Var Mıdır?’ [Does Humanity Exist?] Yeni Adam, 248, 28 Sept. 1939, p.2; ‘Değer Buhranı’, [The Crisis of Value] Yeni Adam, 373, 19 Feb. 1942, p.2; ‘Kültür–Medeniyet’, [Culture–Civilization] Yeni Adam, 638, 23 Feb. 1950, p.1; ‘Türk'ün Realistliği’, [The Realism of the Turk] Yeni Adam, 662, 10 Aug. 1950, p.2. See also Ülken, ‘Türkçülük Anlayışımız’, [Our Understanding of Turkism] İstanbul, 15 March 1946, p.3. For the centrality of the problem time in Bergsonian philosophy, see, Herbert Wildon Carr, ‘Time’ and ‘History’ in Contemporary Philosophy with Special Reference to Bergson and Croce (London: British Academy, 1963). Dahl, Radical Conservatism, p.32. Safa, ‘Şimdi’, [The Present] Yedigün, 13 May 1936, p.4. See also Safa, Türk İnkılabı'na Bakışlar, [Reflections on the Turkish Revolution] (Istanbul: Ötüken Yayımları, 1993 [1938]). For the unique conservative understanding of social change as a spontaneous and creative process see Safa, Türk İnkılabına Bakışlar. See also Ülken, Milletlerin Uyanışı, [The Awakening of the Nations] (İstanbul: Marmara Kitabevi, 1945). See Safa, Türk İnkılabına Bakışlar. See also Safa, ‘Türk Münevverini Türkleştirmek’, [To Turkify the Turkish Intellectual] Cumhuriyet, 24 April 1932. Safa, ‘Kemalist İnkılabın Hakiki Hedefi’, [The Real Goal of the Kemalist Revolution Cumhuriyet, 4 Dec. 1932. Also see Baltacıoğlu, ‘Milli Mantığa Doğru’, [Towards the National Rationale] Yeni Adam, 447, 22 July 1943, p.2; ‘Benim Milliyetçiliğim’, [My Nationalism] Yeni Adam, 384, 7 May 1942, p.2; ‘İlme Doğru’, [Towards the Science] Yeni Adam, 494, 15 June 1944, pp.2, 11; ‘Yeni Adam'ın Milliyetçiliği’, [The Nationalism of Yeni Adam] Yeni Adam, 667, 14 Sept. 1950, p.2. For an interesting account of science see Ülken, ‘İlim Bitaraf Mıdır?’ [Is Science Objective?] İnsan, 1,7, 1 Dec., 1938, pp.458–62. Safa, ‘Sözde Münevverler’, [Pseudo-Intellectuals] Cumhuriyet, 12 Aug. 1933). See Ülken, ‘İçtimai Determinizm’, [Social Determinism] İnsan, 1, 2, 15 May 1938, pp.165–73; ‘Zaman ve İnsan’, [Time and Man] İnsan 2, 12, 8 May 1939, pp.987–92. Tunç, ‘Bugünkü Hayatımızın Akışları’, [The Flows of Our Life Today] Hayat, 6, 136 (1929), p.3. See also Baltacıoğlu, ‘Bizim Cumhuriyetimiz,’ p.2; ‘Cumhuriyete İnanıyorum’, [I Believe in the Republic] 357 Yeni Adam, 30 Oct. 1941, p.2; ‘İntikal Devrinde Yaşayan Adam’, [Man Living in the Transition Period] Yeni Adam, 137, 13 Aug. 1936, p.3. See Ağaoğlu, ‘Nizamlı Hürriyet’, [Disciplined Freedom] Akın, 5 June 1933. Also see Tunç, ‘Aksiyon Felsefesi Bakımından Politika’, [Politics According to the Philosophy of Action] Türk Düşüncesi, 1,1, 1 July 1953, pp.10–3; Safa, ‘Eski ve Yeni Hürriyet’, [Old and New Freedom] Tasvir'i Efkar, 17 July 1941; ‘Hürriyet ve Şahsiyet’, [Freedom and Personality] Yeni Adam, 594, 16 May 1946, p.10. For Bergson's personalism see Mary Whiton Calkins, ‘Henry Bergson: Personalist’, The Philosophical Review, 21, 6 (1912), pp.666–75. For an account on personalism against liberalism and socialism see Baltacıoğlu, ‘Kadro'ya Göre Yeni Adam Yeni Adam'a Göre Kadro’, p.11. Calkins, Ibid., p.668. Ibid. See Safa, ‘Eski ve Yeni Hürriyet’. For a general evaluation on the question of freedom see Ülken, ‘Tarihte Hürriyet ve Determinism’, [Freedom and Determinism in History] Her Ay, 15 May 1937) pp.15–59. Baltacıoğlu criticized the rationalist educational philosophy by arguing that the mission of the republican state was not to create revolutionaries but to initiate the active development of real men/women in their real social setting. See Baltacıoğlu, İçtimai Mektep Nazariyesi ve Prensipleri [The Principles and Theory of Social School] (İstanbul: Tecelli Matbaası, 1932). Also see Baltacıoğlu, ‘Felsefede Türke Doğru’, [Towards the Turk in Philosophy] Yeni Adam, 367 (1942), p.2. For similar evaluations see Safa, ‘Hürriyet ve Şahsiyet’, [Freedom and Personality] Yeni Adam, 594, 16 May 1946, p.10. See Tunç, Fikir Sohbetleri [Intellectual Conservations] (İstanbul: Ülkü Basımevi, 1948). See also Baltacıoğlu, Sosyoloji [Sociology] (İstanbul: Sebat Basımevi, 1939). Ülken, ‘İnsani Vatancılık’, [Humanist Patriotism] Mülkiye, 1, 9 (1932), pp.4–13. See also Ülken, ‘Tarihte Hürriyet ve Determinism’, pp.15–59. Ağaoğlu, Devlet ve Ferd [The State and Individual] (Ankara, Sanayi-i Nefize Basımevi, 1933). Safa, Fatih-Harbiye (İstanbul: Semih Lütfi Kitabevi, 1931). Oxxo Baxa translated the novel into German in 1943. Its German title was Zwischen Ost und West. Kenneth Dyson, The State Tradition in Western Europe: A Study of an Idea and Institution (Oxford: Oxford Martin Robertson, 1980). Ibid., p.172. Ibid. See Tunç, Fikir Sohbetleri. See also Baltacıoğlu, ‘Kadro'ya Göre Yeni Adam, Yeni Adam'a Göre Kadro’, p.11. Dyson, The State Tradition in Western Europe, p.172. See Ülken, Ziya Gökalp. See also Ülken, ‘Ziya Gökalp'ın Tenkidi’, [The Criticism of Ziya Gökalp] Çığır Mecmuası, 7, 81 (1939), pp.141–2. Ülken, Ziya Gökalp. See Ülken ‘Hürlük ve Mesulluk’, [Freedom and Responsibility] İstanbul, 1 Oct. 1946), p.62. Sibel Bozdoğan and Reşat Kasaba, Rethinking Modernity and National Identity and National Identity in Turkey, (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997), p.24. Ibid. See Ağaoğlu, Devlet ve Ferd, pp.41–68. See Ağaoğlu, Devlet ve Ferd, pp.41–68. Richard Lehan, ‘Bergson and the Discourse of the Moderns' in Frederick Burwick and Paul Douglas (eds.), The Crisis in Modernism: Bergson and the Vitalist Controversy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp.306–29. Bozdoğan and Kasaba, Rethinking Modernity and National Identity and National Identity in Turkey, p.27.
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