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The legacies of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games: a bitter–sweet burden

2013; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 9; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/21582041.2013.838297

2158-205X

Roy Panagiotopoulou,

Doping in Sports

AbstractThis paper describes the preparation works related to Athens 2004 Olympics, analyses the controversial issue of the Games' financing using new evidence, presents the benefits and losses for the Greek society by undertaking an international project which proved to be far bigger than it could afford, and scrutinises the post-Olympic use of the remaining Olympic facilities under the new circumstances of the financial crisis. The Olympics with their special cultural symbolism and identification for Greece provided an effective vehicle to boost a wide range of infrastructure modernisation long needed for the city of Athens. Intangible assets deriving from the endeavour to set up such a project in and by a small and not so wealthy country are discussed, stressing on the importance of a 'can-do spirit', a benefit for the consequent period of austerity and uncertainty.Keywords: Olympic Games Athens 2004Olympics preparationpost-Olympic useOlympic costlegacy Athens 2004 Notes on contributorRoy Panagiotopoulou is Professor in Sociology in the Faculty of Communication and Media Studies at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece. She has authored and edited numerous works on Olympic studies and organizational and political communication.Notes1. Greece is the only country in history to have participated in all the ancient and modern organisations of the OG without exception and Athens was the city where the first modern OG took first place in 1896.2. In the mid-1990s, the IOC was widely criticised for internal scandals (bid for Sydney, 2000 and Salt Lake City, 2002) and its image was damaged, creating the serious danger of diminished significance for the global event (Burbank, Andranovich, & Heying, Citation2001; Pound, Citation2004). The choice of Athens to represent for the historical pedigree of the event, drawing upon ethical codes and pedagogical methods applied in the Olympics since antiquity, appeared to be a suitable framework to cleanse the tarnished image of the Games, and frame the response to the charges of gigantism and commercialisation, so reinvigorating the Olympic ideal. Furthermore, the election of a small country to host the Olympics rekindled the hope of many smaller cities and/or states to bid for the organisation of the event.3. In July of 1996 two different public opinion polls were held regarding the candidacy of Athens as the next host of the OG. The company V- Project Research Consulting conducted one poll in which 93% of the population accepted the organisation of the Games by Athens (negative position 4%) and the other was done by the company MRB in which the percentage of acceptance reached 96.2% (negative position 2.5%) (Vernardakis, Citation2004a, pp. 79–80).4. The aesthetic images of a festive reviving of the past through the opening ceremony as well as through the concept of ancient OG embeded in a modern historical discourse, reinforced national identity feelings among Greeks (Liakos, Citation2007, p. 209; Tzanelli, Citation2006).5. According to an article published in the newspaper Eleftherotypia, the 'TOP V' sponsors spent 'the sum of €510 million. The original predictions of the Athens Organising Committee for the OG (ATHOC) were much larger, reaching €750 million' (Aggelis, Citation2004). The total number of sponsoring corporations fell to 31 for Athens 2004 (104 for Sydney). Preuss (Citation2004a, p. 129) has tried to explain this decrease as due to 'the promise to not further commercialise the OG' and 'to the fact that Greece is a relatively small market and therefore the interest of sponsors is lower'. Additionally, 'the sponsors from the USA contributed only 64% of the total sponsoring revenue (82% for Sydney and 90% for Atlanta)' (Preuss, Citation2004a, p. 130).6. The total amount for the construction of all buildings was calculated, according to the authors' research, at €2,605,49 million. Specifically, sums spent on works in the three categories were: category a) €127,35 million (4.89%); category b) €1,577,17 million (60.53%); and category c) €900,97 million (34.58%) (Beriatos, Citation2006, p. 5).7. The Athens Olympic Sports Complex (OAKA) in Maroussi (Olympic Stadium, Tennis Centre, Indoor Hall, Velodrome, Basketball Hall and Aquatic Centre), the coastal zone including two areas: (a) Hellinikon Olympic Complex (Softball Stadium, Baseball Centre, Hockey Centre, Fencing Hall, Canoe/Kayak Slalom Centre and Basketball Hall) and (b) Faliron Olympic Complex (Beach Volleyball Centre, Sports Pavilion and Peace and Friendship Stadium). Other venues dispersed in the greater Athens area were the Marathon Start, Schinias Rowing and Canoeing Centre, Agios Kosmas Sailing Centre, Markopoulo Shooting and Equestrian Centres, Nikea Weightlifting Hall, Ano Liosia Table tennis, Wrestling Hall, Peristeri Judo, Boxing Hall, Goudi Modern Pentathlon Hall, Badminton Hall, Galatsi Gymnastic and Table Tennis Hall, Parnitha Mountain Bike Venue and Panathinaikon Stadium (Archery, Women Marathon) (ATHOC, Press Operations: Athens 79–318). Additional to all these venues, the shot put took place at the ancient Stadium of Olympia in Ancient Olympia.8. Ministry of Culture, General Secretariat for Olympic Utilisation, reply to the Question of parliamentary Control of the Greek Parliament, 22.10.2012, protocol No. 24276.9. More precisely works included: 120 km of new road construction, six major highway interchanges, expanded metro system and upgrading of the old metro line stations, a new Traffic Management Centre, 23 km two-line tram network, suburban railway connecting the airport with the metro and the town, expanded bus and trolley fleet, development of the Attica peripheral highway, renovation of various buildings in central Athens, unification of the ancient sites of the city of Athens (IOC, Citation2012, pp. 3–4; Panagiotopoulou, Citation2009, p. 149).10. There were literally important opportunities for the city to increase green spaces that went to waste. 'In a city lacking public green space, the failure to utilize the OAKA area for that purpose seems even more of a waste' (Romanos, Citation2004). In the bid-proposal for the greater Athens area, there was a plan to create green areas and reforest many areas around Athens, but only a few of these ideas materialised. This was mainly because most of the construction works was completed only a few months before the beginning of the Games and there was no time for planting and similar measures (Karamichas, Citation2012; Kissoudi, Citation2010, pp. 2791–2793).11. According to the economic report released by ATHOC, the overall cost for the event reached the total amount of €1967.8 million and the revenues amounted to €2098.4 million. Consequently, there was a surplus of €130.6 million, (Panagiotopoulou, Citation2009, pp. 152–153; The Business of Sport, Citation2004).12. Press release of the Ministry of Finance from 12.11.2004 (The Business of Sport, Citation2004; Theos, Citation2009, 2).13. Minister of Finance Mr. G. Alogoskoufis, 8.11.2004, in a book presentation, a few days later the Minister of Culture Mrs. F. Palli Petralia, estimated that the Athens Olympics will cost approximately €200 Euros for each Greek citizen. 'We held very good Games, very safe and very expensive', she said (The Business of Sport). The large differences in the final cost calculation are due to the strong disagreements and controversies among the political parties but as well due to the complex way these cost are calculated (Kartalis, Citation2004).14. The issue came again up to date in the Greek press stressing the question how much cost overruns and debt from Athens 2004 organisation worsened the country's financial situation and influence the economic crisis that hit Greece since 2009. In the international press, the final cost estimates rise from €15 billion (Itano, Citation2008), or €16 billion (Zimbalist, Citation2010), or even they double to €30 billion in the Greek popular press (Kapsochas & Belia, Citation2012). The truth is that Greek citizen still do not know the exact final cost of this event and there exist no official publication about the expenditure in detail.15. For a detailed presentation of the expenditure of the Athens 2004 Olympic Games see Panagiotopoulou Citation2009, pp. 150–153.16. More precisely, the Public Investment Programme for Greece in the year 2000 was €7.421 billion, 2001 €7.842 billion, 2003 €8.435 billion and 2004 €9.522 billion – total €40.234 billion (Theos, Citation2009, p. 3).17. Flyvbjerg and Stewart (Citation2012, pp. 7, 10, 13–14) argue that for a city and nation to decide to put on the OG is to decide to take on one of the most financially risky types of megaprojects that exist. Nevertheless, host cities seem to be becoming better at predicting costs. Since Sydney in 2000, the Games have come closer to achieving their bid budgets, with an average overrun of 47% for 2000–2010, as compared to an average overrun of 258% before that (1968–2000).18. These works were mostly construction of roads, expropriation of land, road widening, drainage works and pipes installation, etc.19. The revenues were only €3 million; it was the most expensive Cultural Olympiad ever! The idea of the organisers was to provide a multiple cultural programme to attract a higher number of tourists. The expenditure for the period 2000–2004 were (all in million Euro) 82.46 for the cultural programme, 48 for administration costs and 13.05 for promotion (Panagiotopoulou, Citation2008, p. 321).20. This new calculation was made public by the government after a reopening of the Olympic cost debate in the Greek Parliament, see Naftemboriki, 19.11.2012, http://www.star.gr/Pages/Politiki_Oikonomia.aspx?art=155476&artTitle=8_5_dis_evro_mas_stoichisan_oi_olympiakoi_agones_tou_2004, or Kathimerini 25.11.2012, http://news.kathimerini.gr/4dcgi/_w_articles_sport_2_25/11/2012_502888 (NN, Citation2012a, Citation2012b, Citation2012c). The socialist PASOK party, which oversaw most of the preparations, insisted the Olympics cost were €6 billion. The conservative New Democracy party (which came to power four months before the opening of the event) thinks it is more like €10 billion. Spyros Kapralos, head of the Hellenic Olympic Committee, stated in an interview to The Guardian thatI wouldn't sign my name to it but I'd say €8 billion. There was a lot of creative accountancy. And a lot of the works were done in such speed and haste they cost a lot more than they should have done. I'm not happy (Smith, Citation2012).21. The recession started in the year 2008 with −0.1% of the country's GDP and continued in the year 2009 with −3.3%, 2010 −3.4% and 2011 −6.95% (IMF, Citation2011, p. 53), and EL.STAT http://www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/A0704/PressReleases/A0704_SEL84_DT_QQ_04_2011_01_P_EN.pdf, in 2012 the recession is estimated to surpass 6.5% of the GDP (http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/e92fa408-2e73-11e2-8bb3-00144feabdc0.html#axzz2NbfImC6q).22. Flyvbjerg and Stewart (Citation2012) remark that the costs that are in the public domain are unlikely to represent the full final cost of the Games. Instead, these represent the politically acceptable costs. The real costs are often not reported in a single place, unless significant auditing and investigation are conducted after the Games.23. Regarding economic and social indicators evaluating the impact of the OG upon Greek economy see the Olympic Games Global Impact Study for Athens (Citation2004).24. See Deloitte Hotel Benchmark for the city of Athens, cited from http://www.atedco.gr/old/files/meleti-athinaikou-tourismou.pdf (2007, p. 27). The report stresses to the fact that the hotel branch in Athens 'didn't go overboard with new hotels for the Olympic Games, it does not have to manage a glut of spare rooms' (Deloitte, Citation2007, p. 15).25. In 2008, the Municipality of Athens established the Athens Tourism and Economic Development Agency to capitalise on the benefits gained from the Olympics. The main scope was to undertake various promotion campaigns to increase inbound tourism in Athens and improve its image as a modern metropolis. In 2012, a merger of similar agencies of the Municipality of Athens entitled to encourage economic development took place and a new Agency for Development and Tourism Promotion (ADTP) was launched to enhance the city's tourism.26. In order to measure the complex phenomenon of international acceptance and national reputation, there are many attempts to construct indices and other statistical tools. One rather widespread index is the Nation Brands Index (NBI) constructed by Simon Anholt where six areas of national competence are measured (Tourism, Exports, Governance, Investment and immigration, Culture and heritage and People) and explore people's perceptions of a country serving as a global opinion barometer (http://www.gfkamerica.com/practice_areas/roper_pam/nbi_index/index.en.html). Greece was included in the measurement as a guest country only in the year 2007 and ranked in the seventeenth place of 35 nations of the NBI. Apart from culture, Greece got a relative high score in tourism but showed rather poor results in all other categories, especially in exports, governance and investment and immigration. Although the data of this index indicate only international tendencies and not facts regarding the visibility and attractiveness of a nation and cannot be regarded as exact measurements; however, they indicate that Greece still need to improve its international image after the Olympics. Unfortunately, in the following years things did not develop as expected for Greece. The event is mentioned only in negative connotations either for its huge costs and overruns or for the lack of a post-Olympic strategy to use and maintain the Olympic installations (Panagiotopoulou, Citation2012).27. The breakdown in this group of employees was 885 paid staff by OCCG, 3.785 volunteers and 5.300 staff paid by the contractor firm, http://oggi.simor.ntua.gr/oi-deiktes-en/economic/economic-indicators-pages/ec40-jobs-created-in-olympic-and-context-activities. Additionally, there were 2.652 technical officials hired for the OG and 1.014 for the Paralympic Games (Panagiotopoulou, Citation2012). The total number of employed technical staff during the staging of the Olympics was estimated to reach 12.000 people (http://oggi.simor.ntua.gr/oi-deiktes/koinonia/selides-koinonikn-deiktn/so49).28. This value can be better interpreted in comparison to corresponding values of other countries. The Gini Index average value in 2001 is 0.29 for the EU, 0.22 for Denmark, 0.24 in Austria and Sweden, 0.27 for Germany, 0.37 in Portugal, 0.35 in the UK, 0.408 for the USA and 0.403 for China (http://oggi.simor.ntua.gr/oi-deiktes-en/economic/economic-indicators-pages/ec23-gini-income-distribution-index).29. See, Athens Olympics Venues in Decay 8 Years After 2004 Games (Becatoros, Citation2012), Athens 2004 Olympics: what happened after the athletes went home? (Smith, Citation2012), Abandoned, derelict, covered in graffiti and rubbish: What is left of Athens' £9 billion Olympic 'glory' (Malone, Citation2012), and Olympic venues with unknown proprietor (Lialios, Citation2011).30. Each of the families, which were awarded the flats, had to pay the amount of 850 euro for square meter. The management of the Olympic Village is given to a new public company, called as Olympic Village, SA that is entitled to undertake the construction of the rest of the buildings (shops, sporting centres, etc.), the maintenance of the public spaces and the security of the complex (Megas, Citation2005).31. Only the Olympic complex of OAKA and two football stadia in Salonika and Piraeus have been excluded from the management of the company.32. See Ministry of Culture, General Secretariat for the Olympic Utilisation, reply to the Question of parliamentary Control of the Greek Parliament, 22 October 2012, protocol No, 24276. There are no available data regarding this kind of expenses published by Olympic Properties SA.33. The merger with the Hellenic Olympic Properties SA has taken place according to the law 3943/2011 (Government Gazette 66/31.3.2011 article 47) and that with the Hellenic Public Real Estate Corporation with the law 4002/2011 (Government Gazette 180/22.8.2011).34. 'Troika' is the name adopted internationally by press and public to call the representatives of the three institutions that supervise the development of Greek economy since Mai 2010 when Greece accepted to receive a first bail out. The three involved institutions are: the EU, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the European Central Bank (ECB).35. The Hellinikon SA was created by law 4062/2012 (Government Gazette 70/30.3.2012).36. It is worth to note that the new re-urbanisation conditions for Hellinikon, although irrelevant with the released of the law 4093/2012 (Government Gazette 222/12.11.2012) for the Medium-term Framework of Fiscal Strategy 2013–2016 – Memorandum III (the third austerity measures programme), are explicitly mentioned in that law and indicate the importance of the project for both the government and Troika to sell this property (Findikakis, Citation2012).37. Although there is no consensus on precisely what the word 'legacy' means, it is an ever-present notion and a benchmarking element in the current debate about cities staging the Olympics as well as a criterion for measuring their success. For IOC and the Organising Committees, the term legacy 'what has been left' after staging the Olympics has always a positive connotation. Legacy focuses on measuring outcomes and evaluation of performance on the long term; often for decades or from one generation to another (Gold & Gold, Citation2008, pp. 9–10). A more functional definition of legacy is provided by Preuss (Citation2006, p. 3) 'Irrespective of the time of production and space the legacy is all planned and unplanned positive and negative, tangible and intangible structures created for and by event organisers that remain longer than the event itself'.