Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

Britain, the Old Commonwealth and the Problem of Rhodesian Independence, 1964–65

2008; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 36; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/03086530801889392

1743-9329

Carl Watts,

Caribbean history, culture, and politics

Abstract This article uses new sources from the National Archives of Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United Kingdom to examine the consultation and cooperation between Britain and the Old Commonwealth in dealing with the problem of Rhodesian independence. It demonstrates that Canada developed a proactive approach towards the Rhodesian problem but Britain, Australia and New Zealand gave only limited encouragement to Canadian initiatives to avert Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI). This article also argues that problems in British policy formulation – especially the weakness of its attempts to deter Rhodesia from unilateral action and its hesitant contingency planning for a UDI – strained the relationship with its Old Commonwealth partners. This is significant because it belies the impression that the problem of Rhodesian independence divided the Commonwealth simply along racial lines. Acknowledgement The author wishes to thank the two anonymous referees for their helpful comments on an earlier draft of this article. Notes [1]. Miller, Survey of Commonwealth Affairs, ch. 7. [2]. Ashton, 'British Government Perspectives', 74. [3]. Wilson, The Labour Government, 180–81. The other three 'constituencies' were Rhodesia, Britain and the United Nations. [4]. Garfield Todd and Hardwicke Holderness to Keith Holyoake/Lester Pearson, 9 June 1964, enclosing a copy of a letter from Todd and Holderness to Sir Alec Douglas-Home, 15 May 1964. Archives New Zealand/Te Rua Mahara o te Kāwanatanga, Head Office, Wellington (ANZ): ABHS 950, W4627, 245/8/3, part 9; The National Archives of Canada, Ottawa (NAC): RG 25, vol. 8985, 20-RH-1-4, part 5. [5]. Australian Embassy, Washington, to Department of External Affairs (DEA), Canberra, Savingram 1284, 30 Oct. 1964. The National Archives of Australia, Canberra (NAA): A1838, 190/10/1, part 3a. [6]. E. V. Vines, British High Commission, Dar Es Salaam, to D. F. B. Le Breton, UN and General Africa Department, Commonwealth Relations Office (CRO), London, 3 Feb. 1964. The National Archives of the United Kingdom, Kew (TNA): DO 183/324. Vines reported a visit by Ralph Harry, Australian DEA, to several African states including Tanganyika. Le Breton replied, 'It is interesting to note how both Kambona [Tanganyikan Foreign Minister] and Sithole [Leader of the Zimbabwe African National Union] regard the Australians as the best channel for exerting influence on Field [Rhodesian Prime Minister] and his Government and also on ourselves.' Le Breton, CRO, to P. A. Carter, British High Commission, Dar Es Salaam, 25 Feb. 1964. [7]. See Miller, Survey of Commonwealth Affairs, chs 9, 10. On Canada, see Hayes, 'Canada, the Commonwealth and the Rhodesian Issue'; Matthews and Pratt, 'Canadian Policy towards Southern Africa'. On Australia, see Barclay, 'Friends in Salisbury'; Hall, 'Australia and Rhodesia'. On New Zealand, see McKinnon, Independence and Foreign Policy, 235–38; Sorrenson, New Zealand and the Rhodesia Crisis. [8]. See Alexander, 'A Tale of Two Smiths'; Ashton, 'British Government Perspectives'; Coggins, 'Wilson and Rhodesia'; McWilliam, 'Zimbabwe and the Commonwealth'. [9]. The main records series used for this study are: NAC: RG25, DEA, Series A-3-c; MG31-E47, Records of Arnold Cantwell Smith, External Affairs Series. NAA: A1209, Prime Minister's Department, Correspondence files, annual single number series (classified); A1838, Department of External Affairs, Central Office, Correspondence files, multiple number series; A5828, Eighth Menzies Administration – Cabinet Files (Folders of Decisions of Cabinet and Cabinet Committees). ANZ: Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade – Head Office, Series 950, Accession W4627. TNA: DO 183, Central African Office and CRO: Central Africa: Registered Files (CAO Series) 1962–66. The British Documents on the End of Empire Series is highly valuable: see Ashton and Louis, East of Suez and the Commonwealth, Part II, Europe, Rhodesia, Commonwealth; Murphy, Central Africa, Part II, Crisis and Dissolution, 1959–1965. [10]. See Watts, 'The Rhodesian Crisis'; 'Moments of Tension and Drama'; 'Dilemmas of Intra-Commonwealth Representation'. [11]. Pearson, Mike, vol. 3, 283. [12]. Martin, A Very Public Life, vol. 2, 412–13. The official records of the visit by J. H. Howman to Ottawa in Sept. 1963 are in NAC: RG 25, vol. 10071, 20-1-2-SR, part 1.1. [13]. 'Meeting between Mr Bennett (Southern Rhodesia) with Minister, March 17', memo by R. E. Collins, African and Middle Eastern Division (AMED), DEA, 18 March 1964, para. 3. NAC: RG 25, vol. 10071, 20-1-2-SR part 1.1. [14]. Smith, Stitches in Time, 26. [15]. 'Visit of Air Vice Marshal Bentley, Southern Rhodesian Representative, British Embassy, Washington', J. C. Wood to T. Carter, 7 June 1965. NAC: RG25, vol. 10071, 20-1-2-SR, part 1.2. [16]. 'Meeting with Mr J. H. Howman, Minister of Internal Affairs, for Southern Rhodesia' [on 12 Sept. 1963], memo by R. G. Hatheway, AMED, DEA, 19 Sept. 1963, para. 13. NAC: RG25, vol. 10071, 20-1-2-SR, part 1.1. [17]. 'Southern Rhodesia', confidential brief, 26 June 1964, para. 6. NAC: MG31-E47, vol. 66. [18]. 'Record of Discussion on Southern Rhodesia' [on 28 Oct. 1964], by L. M. Berry, AMED, DEA, 30 Oct. 1964, para. 4. NAC: RG25, vol. 10071, 20-1-2-SR, part 1.1. 'Southern Rhodesia', confidential brief, 7 June 1965, 2. NAC: MG31-E47, vol. 66. On the problems of the Zambian economy in the event of a UDI, see Watts, 'The United States, Britain, and the Problem of Rhodesian Independence', 450–56. [19]. 'Record of Discussion on Southern Rhodesia' [on 28 Oct. 1964], by L. M. Berry, AMED, DEA, 30 Oct. 1964, para. 7. NAC: RG25, vol. 10071, 20-1-2-SR, part 1.1. [20]. Parliamentary Debates (Australian House of Representatives), 21 Oct. 1965. Quoted in Barclay, 'Friends in Salisbury', 39. [21]. Menzies, Afternoon Light, 190–91. [22]. Ibid., 218. [23]. Cabinet Decision 1373, 12 Nov. 1965; Cabinet Decision 1374, 16 Nov. 1965; Cabinet Decision 1375, 16 Nov. 1965. NAA: A5828/1, vol. 4 [Cabinet Decisions 1051–1400]. Summary of a Statement on Rhodesia by Sir Robert Menzies, House of Representatives, 16 Nov. 1965, The Parliamentarian 47, no. 1 (Jan. 1966), 93–95. On the use of force, see Watts, 'Killing Kith and Kin'; Murphy, '"An Intricate and Distasteful Subject"'. [24]. Parliamentary Debates (Australian House of Representatives), 17 Nov. 1965. Quoted in Barclay, 'Friends in Salisbury', 40; Hall, 'Australia and Rhodesia', 178. [25]. Hall, 'Australia and Rhodesia', 178. [26]. What follows is based on 'Southern Rhodesia', confidential brief [n.d. but June 1964], 1. NAA: A1838, 190/10/1, part 3a. [27]. Ibid. [28]. McIntyre, Acting Secretary, to Hasluck, Minister for External Affairs, 19 Oct. 1965. NAA: A1838, 190/10/1, part 5. [29]. 'Southern Rhodesia: Mr Martin's Message', memo by J. C. G. Kevin, 25 Feb. 1965. NAA: A1838, 190/10/1, part 4. [30]. Kevin, Pretoria, to DEA, Canberra, cable no. 170, 15 Oct. 1965, passim. NAA: A1838, 190/10/1, part 5. Kevin, Pretoria, to DEA, Canberra, Savingram 65/65, 17 Dec. 1965, para 3. NAA: A1838, 190/10/1, part 7. The Australian High Commission in London strongly challenged Kevin's view that the British had mishandled negotiations. A. J. Eastman, Senior External Affairs Representative, to DEA, Canberra, cable no. 9138, 22 Oct. 1965. NAA: A1838, 935/9/5, part 9. [31]. Kevin, Pretoria, to DEA, Canberra, Savingram 65/65, 17 Dec. 1965, para. 5. NAA: A1838, 190/10/1, part 7. [32]. 'Southern Rhodesia: Record of a Discussion between Mr Holyoake, and Mr Dupont', 11 July 1964. ANZ: ABHS 950, W4627, 245/8/3, part 9. Message from Keith Holyoake to Ian Smith, DEA to New Zealand High Commission, London, cable no. 3155, 5 Oct. 1965. ANZ: ABHS 950, W4627, 245/8/3, part 13. [33]. See Summary of a Statement on the 1964 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference by Keith Holyoake, House of Representatives, 6 Aug. 1964, Journal of the Parliaments of the Commonwealth 45, no. 4 (Oct. 1964), 438–43. [34]. Chapman, 'From Labour to National', 381. [35]. McKinnon, Independence and Foreign Policy, 238. [36]. DEA, Wellington, to Malcolm Templeton, Counsellor, New Zealand High Commission, London, 27 Jan. 1965. ANZ: ABHS 950, W4627, 245/8/3, part 11. [37]. 'Southern Rhodesia: International Developments and New Zealand Policy', brief for Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference, London, 8–15 July 1964, annex 1, 1. ANZ: ABHS 950, W4627, 245/8/3, part 9. [38]. 'Visit to Ottawa by Mr J. H. Howman, Minister of Internal Affairs, Local Government and African Education of Southern Rhodesia, Sept. 12–13 1963', memo by D. B. Hicks, AMED, DEA, 21 Oct. 1963, para.4. NAC: RG25, vol. 10071, 20-1-2-SR, part 1.1. [39]. Ibid., para. 5. [40]. N. F. H. Berlis, Canadian High Commissioner, Dar Es Salaam, to Under-Secretary of State for External Affairs, Ottawa, 16 Sept. 1963, para. 3. NAC: RG 25, vol. 10071, 20-1-2-SR, part 1.1. [41]. See the exchange of correspondence between Winston Field and Duncan Sandys, Nov.–Dec. 1963, in Cmnd. 2807, 5–9. [42]. 'Southern Rhodesia – Canadian role', Thomas Carter, AMED, DEA, c/o Canadian Embassy, Cape Town, to Paul Martin, Ottawa, dispatch no. 142, 7 April 1964, para. 2. NAC: RG25, vol. 10071, 20-1-2-SR, part 1.1. [43]. See Watts, 'Moments of Tension and Drama'. [44]. Harrison Cleveland, Canadian High Commissioner, Lagos, to Arnold Smith, Under-Secretary of State for External Affairs, Ottawa, Letter no. 226, 21 May 1965, para. 3. NAA: A1838, 190/11/1, part 2. [45]. Ibid., para. 4. As a result of insolvency Newfoundland surrendered its Dominion status to Britain until it was once again able to support itself and in place of responsible government Britain established a Commission of Government, which consisted of appointed British and Newfoundland civil servants, to administer Newfoundland. See MacKenzie, 'Canada, the North Atlantic Triangle, and the Empire'. [46]. Cleveland to Smith, 21 May 1965, para. 4. NAA: A1838, 190/11/1, part 2. [47]. Ibid., para. 5. [48]. Ibid., para. 6. [49]. 'Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference, London, June 17–25, 1965', External Affairs confidential brief, 7 June 1965; Minutes of PMM (65) 8th Meeting, item 5 'Rhodesia', 75–87. NAC: MG31-E47, vol. 66. [50]. 'Rhodesia: Possibility of Canadian Initiative', memo by C. T. Moodie, Acting First Assistant Secretary, Division IV, DEA, Canberra, to Minister for External Affairs, [n.d. but June 1965], para. 4. NAA: A1838, 190/11/1, part 2. Australian information was based on discussions with T. W. H. Read, the Canadian Acting High Commissioner in Canberra, who was not acting on instructions from Ottawa. [51]. 'Rhodesia: Possibility of Canadian Initiative', memo by C. T. Moodie (marginal hand-written minute). NAA: A1838, 190/11/1, part 2. [52]. Wilson to Smith, 12 Oct. 1965, para. 2, Cmnd. 2807, 95. [53]. Australian High Commission, Wellington, to DEA, Canberra, cable no. 502, 13 Oct. 1965. NAA: A1838, 370/1/26, part 1. [54]. Minutes of OPD (65) 44th Meeting, 15 Oct. 1965, 3. TNA: CAB 148/18. [55]. Smith to Wilson, 18 Oct. 1965, paras 3–5, Cmnd. 2807, 96–97. [56]. Smith, Bitter Harvest, 95. [57]. 'Confidential Note for the Record: Rhodesia', 19 Oct. 1965. TNA: DO 183/674. [58]. 'Commonwealth consultation in the event of a UDI', CRO memo, Oct. 1965. TNA: FO 371/181880. [59]. 'Commonwealth conference on Rhodesia', memo by A. D. McIntosh, Secretary of External Affairs, to Keith Holyoake, 21 Oct. 1965. ANZ: ABHS 950, W4627, 245/8/3, part 14. Australian High Commission, Wellington, to DEA, Canberra, cable. no. 516, 22 Oct. 1965; Sir Robert Menzies, Canberra, to Sir Alexander Downer, Australian High Commissioner, London, cable no. 5882, 22 Oct. 1965. NAA: A1838, 190/11/1, part 4. [60]. Wilson to Pearson, cable no. 2532, 21 Oct. 1965. TNA: DO 183/674. [61]. See Miller, Survey of Commonwealth Affairs, 215–19. [62]. Successful deterrence depends upon a state conveying clearly to an opponent that the course of action it contemplates threatens the fundamental interests of the deterring state and it is committed to defending its fundamental interests. That commitment must be backed by threats that are both credible and sufficiently potent in the mind of the opponent to convince it that the deterring state has the motivation and the capability to defend its fundamental interests. Craig and George, Force and Statecraft, 179. [63]. Wilson, The Labour Government, 23–25. [64]. 'Record of Discussion on Southern Rhodesia' [on 28 Oct. 1964], by L. M. Berry, AMED, DEA, 30 Oct. 1964, para. 6; 'Southern Rhodesia – Possible UDI – Canadian Interests', memo by Tom Carter, AMED, DEA, for Under-Secretary of State for External Affairs, 28 Oct. 1964. NAC: RG 25, vol. 10071, 20-1-2-SR, part 1.1. [65]. Sir Kenneth Bailey, Australian High Commissioner, Ottawa, to DEA, Canberra, cable no. 342, 28 Oct. 1964. NAA: A1838, 190/10/1, part 3a. [66]. Australian High Commission, Wellington, to DEA, Canberra, cable nos. 557 & 559, 28 Oct. 1964. NAA: A1209, 1963/6696, part 1. [67]. 'Australian Contingency Plans', Record of Conversation between Mr J. R. Rowland, Assistant Secretary, Division IV, DEA, Canberra, and Mr Stansfield, Canadian High Commission, Canberra, 28 Oct. 1964. NAA: A1838, 190/10/1, part 4. [68]. DEA, Canberra, to Australian High Commission, London, cable no. O.27765, 29 Oct. 1964. NAA: A1209, 1963/6696, part 1. Other documents on this file indicate that Australian officials also prevailed upon Menzies to issue a press statement in support of the British Government's position. [69]. Windrich, Britain and the Politics of Rhodesian Independence, 33. [70]. For Wilson's account see The Labour Government, 73–75; for Smith's version of events, Bitter Harvest, 85–87. The official British record is 'Record of a meeting between Mr Wilson and Mr Smith', by Derek J. Mitchell, Prime Minister's Principal Private Secretary, 30 Jan. 1965. TNA: PREM 13/534, ff 86–95, in Ashton and Louis East of Suez and the Commonwealth, Part II, 184–85. [71]. 'Meeting of the Prime Minister with the Prime Minister of Rhodesia' [on 30 Jan. 1965], Note for the File, 2 Feb. 1965. NAC: RG 25, vol. 10071, 20-1-2-SR, part 1.2. [72]. E. J. Emery, British High Commission, Ottawa, to K. J. Neale, CRO, reporting the views of Tom Carter, 11 Feb. 1965; Paul Martin to Arthur Bottomley, 18 Feb. 1965. TNA: DO 183/674 and FO 371/181876. [73]. Ibid. [74]. Bottomley to Martin, cable no. 790, 2 April 1965. TNA: DO 183/674 and FO 371/181877. [75]. 'Southern Rhodesia: Call at Mr Read's Request', Record of Conversation, 25 Feb. 1965. NAA: A1838, 190/10/1, part 4. [76]. 'Southern Rhodesia: Mr Martin's Message', memo by J. C. G. Kevin, 25 Feb. 1965, para. 1. NAA: A1838, 190/10/1, part 4. [77]. Ibid., paras 2, 7, 8. [78]. The New Zealand government was aware of Canadian thinking, but made no comment. New Zealand Deputy High Commissioner, Ottawa, to Secretary of External Affairs, Wellington, 26 Jan. 1965; New Zealand High Commission, Ottawa, to Prime Minister and Secretary of External Affairs, Wellington, cable no. 62, 18 Feb. 1965. ANZ: ABHS 950, W4627, 245/8/3, part 11. [79]. 'Southern Rhodesia – Possible UDI – Canadian Interests', memo by Tom Carter, AMED, DEA, for Under-Secretary of State for External Affairs, 28 Oct. 1964. [80]. Ralph Collins, Canadian Ambassador to South Africa, to DEA, Ottawa, cable no. 85, 3 July 1964. NAC: RG 25, vol. 10071, 20-1-2-SR, part 1.1. [81]. Copy cable text from McGill, Canadian High Commission, Dar-Es-Salaam, 8 Oct. 1965. ANZ: ABHS 950, W4627, 245/8/3, part 13. [82]. Figures cited in Barclay, 'Friends in Salisbury', 47. [83]. 'Rhodesia – Present Situation', Report by J. C. G. Kevin, 6 May 1965. NAA: A1838, 190/10/1, part 5. [84]. Department of Trade memo, 27 Jan. 1964. ANZ: ABHS 950, W4627, 245/8/3, part 11. [85]. Wilson to Pearson, cable no. 2374, 2 Oct. 1965. TNA: DO 183/674. Similar messages were sent to Menzies and Holyoake. [86]. Holyoake to Wilson, cable no. 3156, 5 Oct. 1965. ANZ: ABHS 950, W4627, 245/8/3, part 13; TNA: DO 183/676. Similarly, Menzies wrote: 'I am not attracted by the idea of sending a message or making a public statement after your conference has failed, assuming it does fail. I much prefer to send a direct message to Smith, without publicity, in the hope, however slight, that it may help him in the direction of reasonable conclusions'. Menzies to Wilson, cable no. O.31260, 5 Oct. 1965. NAA: A1838, 190/10/1, part 5. [87]. Holyoake to Smith, cable no. 3155, 5 Oct. 1965. ANZ: ABHS 950, W4627, 245/8/3, part 13. [88]. Menzies to Smith, cable no. O.31259, 5 Oct. 1965. NAA: A1838, 190/10/1, part 5. [89]. Pearson to Smith, cable no. ME105, 4 Oct. 1965. NAA: A1838, 190/11/1, part 3. [90]. Smith to Pearson, 9 Oct. 1965. TNA: DO 183/674. Smith to Menzies, 9 Oct. 1965. NAA: A1838, 190/10/1, part 5. Smith to Holyoake, 9 Oct. 1965. ANZ: ABHS 950, W4627, 245/8/3, part 13. [91]. Pearson to Wilson, and Pearson to Smith, 12 Oct. 1965. TNA: PRO, DO 183/674. [92]. Australian High Commission, Wellington, to DEA, Canberra, cable no. 495, 11 Oct. 1965. NAA: A1838, 370/1/26. [93]. Holyoake to Wilson, cable no. 3156, 5 Oct. 1965. ANZ: ABHS 950, W4627, 245/8/3, part 13; TNA: DO 183/676. [94]. New Zealand High Commission, Canada, to Secretary of External Affairs and Prime Minister, Wellington, cable no. 576, 5 Oct. 1965. ANZ: ABHS 950, W4627, 245/8/3, part 13. [95]. 'Record of Discussion on Southern Rhodesia', by L. M. Berry, AMED, DEA, 28 Oct. 1964. NAC: RG 25, vol. 10071, 20-1-2 SR, part 1.1. Martin to CRO, cable no. ME448, 28 Oct. 1964. TNA: DO 183/317. [96]. E. J. Emery, British High Commission, Ottawa, to Arnold Smith, Under-Secretary of State for External Affairs, 9 Nov. 1964. TNA: DO 183/317. [97]. Paul Martin to Arthur Bottomley, 18 Feb. 1965. TNA: DO 183/674 and FO 371/181876. [98]. 'Brief for Secretary of State's Meeting with Mr Paul Martin', Rhodesia Department, CRO, May 1965, para. 3. TNA: PRO, DO 183/674. [99]. 'Extract from a meeting between Mr Paul Martin and the Commonwealth Secretary', 10 May 1965. TNA: DO 183/674. [100]. Sir Harry Lintott, 'Canada's Foreign Policy', dispatch no. 7, 3 May 1965, 9. TNA: DO 183/674. [101]. 'Contingency Planning in the Event of a Unilateral Declaration of Independence: Memorandum by the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations', 21 Sept. 1965. TNA: CAB 148/22, OPD (65) 132. The CRO supplied a revised copy of the paper to Canada, Australia and New Zealand on 8 Oct. 1965, but with the following warning: 'This working level document is prepared for the secret information of the persons to whom it is communicated. It mentions certain decisions which have been taken by British Ministers, but on some of the matters with which it deals no such decisions have yet been reached. The document cannot, therefore, be taken as an indication of the magnitude of the likely reaction of the British Government to a UDI in Rhodesia'. New Zealand High Commission, London, to DEA, Wellington, cable nos. 3509 & 3510, 8 Oct. 1965. ANZ: ABHS 950, W4627, 245/8/3, part 13; NAA: A1838, 370/1/26, part 1. [102]. Australian High Commission, Ottawa, to DEA, Canberra, cable no. 605, 12 Oct. 1965. NAA: A1838, 190/11/1, part 3. [103]. Australian High Commission, Ottawa, to DEA, Canberra, cable no. 606, 12 Oct. 1965, reporting the views of Tom Carter, AMED, DEA. NAA: A1838, 190/11/1, part 3. [104]. New Zealand High Commission, Canberra, to DEA, Wellington, cable no. 853, 27 Sept. 1965. ANZ: ABHS 950, W4627, 245/8/3, part 12. [105]. New Zealand High Commission, Canberra, to DEA, Wellington, cable no. 1060, 12 Nov. 1965. ANZ: ABHS 950, W4627, 245/8/3, part 15. [106]. Cabinet decision 1374, 16 Nov. 1965. NAA: A5828/1, vol. 4. [107]. NAA: A1838, 190/11/1, part 5, Mr J. E. Ryan, Australian High Commissioner, Accra, to DEA, Canberra, 17 Nov. 1965. [108]. DEA, Wellington, to New Zealand High Commission, London, cable no. 3187, 7 Oct. 1965. ANZ: ABHS 950, W4627, 245/8/3, part 13. [109]. Australian High Commission, Wellington, to DEA, Canberra, cable no. 516, 22 Oct. 1965. NAA: A1838, 190/11/1, part 4. [110]. A. D. McIntosh to Keith Holyoake, 12 Nov. 1965. ANZ: ABHS 950, W4627, 245/8/3, part 15. [111]. Australian High Commission, Wellington, to DEA, Canberra, cable no. 549, 18 Nov. 1965. NAA: A1838, 190/11/1, part 5. [112]. Australian High Commission, London, to DEA, Canberra, cable no. 10527, 22 Nov. 1965. NAA: A1838, 190/11/1, part 5. [113]. 'Holyoake to get "punch for timidity"', Canberra Times, 27 Nov. 1965. NAA: A1838, 190/11/1, part 5. [114]. E. J. Emery, British High Commission, Ottawa, to R. Walker, CRO, London, 1 Dec. 1966, para. 2. TNA: DO 193/79; in Ashton and Louis East of Suez and the Commonwealth, part II, 355. [115]. Martin, 'Canada and the Commonwealth', 51–58. [116]. Cooper, Canadian Foreign Policy, 36. [117]. Ibid. [118]. Ibid. [119]. Ibid., 37–39. [120]. Holmes, 'The Changing Role of the Diplomatic Function', 10, quoted in Cooper, Canadian Foreign Policy, 37. [121]. Emery to Walker, 1 Dec. 1966, para.6. TNA: DO 193/79; in Ashton and Louis, East of Suez and the Commonwealth, part II, 356. [122]. Cooper, Canadian Foreign Policy, 38. [123]. MacKirdy, 'The Commonwealth: Does it Exist?', 167. [124]. See Watts, 'Moments of Tension and Drama'. [125]. Butler, Britain and Empire, 171–72; Young, The Labour Governments 1964–70, vol. 2, 10–11. [126]. Alexander, 'A Tale of Two Smiths', 305. [127]. Murphy, 'By Invitation Only', 250–51. [128]. Minute by P. Rogers, 1 July 1965, para. 1. TNA: DO 193/81; in Ashton and Louis, East of Suez and the Commonwealth, part II, 340–43. [129]. Ibid., para. 4.