Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

“Healing” the bodies and souls of immigrant children: The Ringworm and Trachoma Institute, Sha'ar ha-Aliyah, 1952–1960

2010; Routledge; Volume: 29; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/13531042.2010.508956

1744-0548

Rhona Seidelman, S. Ilan Troen, Shifra Shvarts,

Historical Studies on Reproduction, Gender, Health, and Societal Changes

Abstract This article presents the first detailed history of the Sha'ar ha-Aliyah Ringworm and Trachoma Institute. It seeks to clarify the historical details of the controversial issue of ringworm and trachoma treatment during the mass immigration of the 1950s, while contributing to scholarly discussion on Israel's early history as well as the relationship between health and immigration in Israel and the world. Although a localized history, the implications of this story are extensive, shedding light on far-reaching, global themes of biopolitics, body politics, and the ties between immigration, nation-building, medicine, and power. Keywords: Sha'ar ha-Aliyahringwormtrachomamass immigrationpublic healthmedicine Acknowledgments This research was partly funded by the Israel Science Foundation (ISF) 1217/04. Various people in various parts of the world took the time to comment on earlier drafts of this article, and we are grateful to them: the members of the history of medicine reading group at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and the Journal of Israeli History's anonymous reviewers offered important and helpful criticism. Particular thanks must go to Dafna Hirsch of the Open University of Israel who graciously gave her time and her expertise to do a thorough and critical reading. We deeply value her insight, her encouragement, and her generosity. Notes 1 CitationModan et al., "Radiation-Induced Head and Neck Tumors." 2 For further reading on the Compensation Law, see CitationModan and Perry, "Gormei sikun"; Katvan, "Picking the Sores of the Past." 3 For existing historiography on ringworm treatment in Israel, see Shvarts et al., "Masa ha-gazezet ha-nishkah"; and idem et al., "The Tinea Capitis Campaign." The Israeli case study provides a fascinating example of the engagement of medical historians by the medical and legal professions. 4 For more on Sha'ar ha-Aliyah, see CitationSeidelman, "Sha'ar ha-Aliyah"; and CitationWeisberger, Sha'ar ha-Aliyah. 5 Moshe Lissak has claimed that at one point there were 15,000 people housed at Sha'ar ha-Aliyah. However, it is possible that this number also included Sha'ar ha-Aliyah Bet – a temporary camp opened in the nearby area of Atlit in 1951 that was intended to alleviate the overcrowding of the original camp and was, administratively, an extension of Sha'ar ha-Aliyah. Lissak, Ha-aliyah ha-gedolah, 26. On Sha'ar ha-Aliyah Bet see untitled document from Yehuda Weisberger's files, written after 1954, in Central Zionist Archives, Jerusalem (hereafter CZA), AK 456/3; and "Distribution of Immigrants from Ports of Arrival, 1 April 1951–12 August 1954," CZA, AK 456/1. (All archival documents referred to in this article are in Hebrew unless otherwise indicated.) 6 Weisberger, Sha'ar ha-Aliyah, unnumbered photographs between pp. 64 and 65. 7 Weisberger, Sha'ar ha-Aliyah, unnumbered photographs between, 75. 8 CitationLissak, Ha-aliyah ha-gedolah, 26; CitationHacohen, Olim bi-se'arah, 203. 9 Report on changes in the Sha'ar ha-Aliyah administration, 18 February 1955, CZA, AK 456/6 #13. 10 CitationDavies, "Health and Disease in Israel"; CitationPicard, "Immigration, Health and Social Control." 11 CitationKiple, ed., Cambridge World History of Human Disease, 900; CitationStedman, ed., Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences, 250. 12 Kiple, ed., Cambridge World History of Human Disease, 898. 13 Celia Dugger, "Blocking the Way to a Life Spent in Darkness: Trachoma Plagues the World's Poorest," International Herald Tribune, 31 March 2006. 14 Kiple, ed., Cambridge World History of Human Disease, 898. 15 Stedman, ed., Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences, 107. 16 CitationAllen and Semba, "The Trachoma 'Menace'," 501; CitationKraut, Silent Travellers, 275–76. 17 Allen and Semba, "The Trachoma 'Menace'," 503. 18 CitationMarkel, "'The Eyes Have It,'" 527, 560. 19 See Encyclopedia Judaica, 2nd ed., 15:556–57; Bauer, A History of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee; Shvarts et al., "Masa ha-gazezet ha-nishkah," 265–70. 20 CitationPrywes, Asir tikvah, 226. 21 CitationLevy, Toldot ha-refu'ah, chap. 18. 22 See CitationShehory-Rubin and Shvarts, "Hadassah" li-vri'ut ha-am, chap. 2. 23 Kiple, ed., Cambridge World History of Human Disease, 731. 24 Stedman, ed., Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences, 203; Kiple, ed., Cambridge World History of Human Disease, 735. 25 CitationRosenthal, "Perspectives in Ringworm of the Scalp," 855. 26 Kraut, Silent Travellers, 275–76. 27 CitationShvarts et al., "Masa ha-gazezet ha-nishkah." 28 CitationRoland, Courage under Siege, 43. 29 Shehory-Rubin and Shvarts, "Hadassah" li-vri'ut ha-am, 81, 74, 89. For more on the treatment of ringworm in Mandate Palestine, see CitationDostrovsky, "Ha-milhamah be-mahalot ha-or ha-medabkot"; idem, "Report on Ringworm in Jerusalem's Schools," CZA, J113/1434, 1928; idem, "Hitpathut dermatologit," 252–53. 30 CitationShvarts, "International Health and Welfare Organizations," 325–34. 31 See, for example, CitationIskander, UNICEF in the Middle East and North Africa (available at UNICEF Archives, www.cf-hst.net). 32 See, for example, CitationIskander, UNICEF in the Middle East and North Africa (available at UNICEF Archives, www.cf-hst.net), 5. 33 CitationShvarts et al., "The Tinea Capitis Campaign"; CitationShifra Shvarts, "Israel Health Policy and the Ringworm Case." 34 Shehory-Rubin and Shvarts, "Hadassah" li-vri'ut ha-am, 90, 95. 35 On the incidence of disease during the mass immigration, see Shvarts, Health and Zionism; idem et al., "Medical Selection"; CitationHacohen, Olim bi-se'rah; Davies, "Health and Disease in Israel." 36 Picard, "Immigration, Health and Social Control," 33–34. 37 Picard, "Immigration, Health and Social Control," 33–34, 42. For more on the selective immigration policy, see CitationHalamish, "Aliyah selektivit," 185–202; CitationHacohen, "Mediniyut ha-aliyah"; CitationArnon, "Mediniyut ha-aliyah"; Picard, "Immigration, Health and Social Control"; CitationShvarts et al., "Medical Selection." 38 Report to Histadrut on Sha'ar ha-Aliyah activity, 18 February 1955, CZA, AK 456/3. 39 Weisberger report to Zionist Congress, 28 December 1955, CZA, AK 456/3. 40 Letter from Dr. Chaim Sheba, 18 December 1951, CZA, AK 456/3. 41 Letter from Dr. Chaim Sheba, 18 December 1951, CZA, AK 456/3 42 Report on number of immigrants entering and leaving Sha'ar ha-Aliyah, 23 May 1956, CZA, AK 456/2. 43 Report on Ringworm and Trachoma Institute, 8 July 1952, CZA AK 456/3. 44 Report on Ringworm and Trachoma Institute, 8 July 1952, CZA AK 456/3 45 Report on number of immigrants entering and leaving Sha'ar ha-Aliyah, 23 May 1956, CZA, AK 456/2. 46 Modan et al., "Radiation-Induced Head and Neck Tumours," 277. 47 "Kol adam hamishi yashav po" (Every fifth person sat here), Ma'ariv, 9 February 1962. 48 Handwritten chart entitled "Ringworm," CZA, AK 456/3. 49 Report on Ringworm and Trachoma Institute, 8 July 1952, CZA, AK 456/3. 50 WIZO booklet, August 1952 (in English), CZA, AK 456/2. 51 Report on Ringworm and Trachoma Institute, 8 July 1952, CZA, AK 456/3. 52 Report to Histadrut on Sha'ar ha-Aliyah activity, 18 February 1955, CZA, AK 456/3; undated report on Sha'ar ha-Aliyah activity, probably from 1954/55, CZA, AK 456/6. 53 Administrative Order #61, 16 April 1953, CZA, AK 456/1. 54 Newspaper article on Purim in the Ringworm and Trachoma Institute, undated, CZA, AK 456/1. 55 "Cochin Newcomers Celebrate at Camp," Jerusalem Post, 8 April 1955 (in English), CZA, AK 456/2. 56 Report to Histadrut on Sha'ar ha-Aliyah activity, 18 February 1955, CZA, AK 456/3; undated report on Sha'ar ha-Aliyah activity, probably from 1954/55, CZA, AK 456/6. Although there is evidence to suggest that some Israeli-born children were sent to Sha'ar ha-Aliyah for ringworm treatment (Shifra Shvarts interview with E.F.) these would only have been cases where the parents had immigrated after 1948 and the child was born during the mass immigration. As a result, although the child would have in fact been Israeli-born, he/she would still have been strongly associated with the mass immigration. Children of "old-timers" who had ringworm tended to be treated in various local clinics run by their respective HMOs. 57 "Ra'iti shamati: 'Sha'ar ha-Aliyah' – mahaneh ripui" (I saw and heard: "Sha'ar ha-Aliyah" – healing camp), Ha'aretz, 29 May 1955. For more on the treatment of ringworm within the Palestinian community, see CitationFeilchenfeld, "Erfahrungen bei Behandlung." 58 Report on Ringworm and Trachoma Institute, 8 July 1952, CZA, AK 456/1. 59 Letter from Dr. Chaim Sheba, 18 December 1951, CZA, AK 456/3. 60 "Sha'ar ha-Aliyah Is Four," 26 March 1953, CZA, AK 456/2. 61 Report in Weisberger file, CZA, AK 456/6. 62 See CitationHirsch, "Interpreters of Occident." For the Zionist dedication to mother-infant health care and its roots in Ottoman Palestine, see CitationShvarts, "The Development of Mother and Infant Welfare Centers." 63 WIZO booklet, August 1952 (in English), CZA, AK 456/2. 64 Report on Ringworm and Trachoma Institute, 8 July 1952, CZA, AK 456/3. 65 Modan et al., "Radiation-Induced Head and Neck Tumours," 277. 66 Letter in response to a complaint made by Weisberger, 23 July 1956, Israel State Archives (hereafter ISA), file 57/3 4251/23-g. 67 Yaldei ha-gazezet (English translation taken from movie subtitles). Due to the problematic nature of the film, we cite testimony from the movie only when it is corroborated by other archival documentation and oral testimony. Later, in 2007, the directors David Belhassen and Asher Hemias apparently expressed second thoughts and regrets, dissociating themselves from the film's conclusions. See comments by Eli Pilo, a ringworm irradiation casualty, at http://www.marocmoreshet.com/index.php?showtopic = 2551/, posted 3 March 2010 (in Hebrew; accessed 4 July 2010). 68 Stoler-Liss, Hadrakhah ve-kidum bri'ut, 205. 69 Rhona Seidelman interview with D.N., 9 October 2005. 70 CitationAmir, Tarnegol kaparot, 19. 71 This issue arose in the discussion that followed the screening of the movie Yaldei ha-gazezet at the Tel Aviv Cinemathèque. 72 Kraut, Silent Travellers, 275–76. 73 CitationRosenberg, "Disease in History," 10. 74 Letter about the Ringworm Institute, 19 August 1957, ISA, file 57/3 4251/24. 75 Letter about the Ringworm Institute, 19 August 1957, ISA, file 57/3 4251/24 76 CitationStoler-Liss, Hadrakhah ve-kidum bri'ut, 207. 77 CitationStoler-Liss, Hadrakhah ve-kidum bri'ut 78 CitationStoler-Liss, Hadrakhah ve-kidum bri'ut 79 Letters about the Ringworm Institute, 11 December 1956 and 28 January 1957, ISA, file 57/3 4251/24. 80 These terms appear widely in archival documents. Two examples can be found in ISA, file 57/3 4252/23: letters from Professors Drukuman (head of radiology department in Hadassah) and Zaghar (dermatology department in Hadassah), April 1955; and a May 1954 table listing Sha'ar ha-Aliyah health care employees. 81 "300 yeladim holei garenet ve-gazezet ba-mahaneh 'Sha'ar ha-Aliyah'" (300 children sick with trachoma and ringworm at the "Sha'ar ha-Aliyah" camp), Kol ha-Am, 20 May 1955; "Holei gazezet ve-hagarenet mitrapim be-Sha'ar ha-Aliyah" (People ill with ringworm and trachoma heal at Sha'ar ha-Aliyah), Davar, 20 May 1955; "Ra'iti shamati: 'Sha'ar ha-Aliyah' – mahaneh ripui" (I saw and heard: "Sha'ar ha-Aliyah" healing camp), Ha'aretz, 29 May 1955; "'Sha'ar ha-Aliyah' histaglah le-darkhei ha-klitah" ("Sha'ar ha-Aliyah" has become accustomed to the ways of absorption), Ha-Tzofeh, 22 May 1955; "Hahzarat atarah le-yoshnah… o mahaneh ha-ripui le gazezet ve-garenet" (Returning a crown to its former glory…or the ringworm and trachoma healing camp), Zmanim, 23 May 1955; "Yesh lehihaletz la-milhamah be gazezet" (We must be pioneers in the war against ringworm), Al ha-Mishmar, 23 May 1955. 82 "Holei gazezet" (n. 81 above). 83 "Hahzarat atarah le-yoshnah" (n. 81 above). It must be kept in mind that the harshness of the treatment would not have been unique to the Israeli experience. Even in cases where authors maintain a disengaged clinical description of the procedure, the reader can certainly understand that it would have been uncomfortable and painful, since it involved tearing hair from the scalp with wax. 84 "Ra'iti shamati" (n. 81 above). 85 "Holei gazezet" (n. 81 above). 86 CitationMusto, "Quarantine and the Problem of AIDS," 98. 87 "Yesh lehihaletz la-milhamah be gazezet" (n. 81 above). 88 For more on Zionism and medicine, see CitationDavidovitch and Seidelman, "Herzl's Altneuland"; CitationKirsh, "Population Genetics in Israel," 631–55; CitationSufian, Healing the Land and the Nation. 89 CitationSontag, Illness as Metaphor, 3. 90 See Weisberger files, CZA. 91 On the role of malaria in the Zionist project, see Sufian, Healing the Land and the Nation. 92 Musto, "Quarantine and the Problem of AIDS," 104.