Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

Asperger's Disorder, Criminal Responsibility and Criminal Culpability

2009; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 16; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/13218710902887483

1934-1687

Ian Freckelton, David List,

Autism Spectrum Disorder Research

Abstract It was nice in the police cell. It was almost a perfect cube, 2 metres long by 2 metres wide by 2 metres high… . [The policeman asked], "Are you telling the truth?" I said, "I always tell the truth." And he said, "Right. I am going to give you a caution." I asked, "Is that going to be on a piece of paper like a certificate I can keep?" He replied, "No, a caution means that we are going to keep a record of what you did, that you hit a policeman but that it was an accident and that you didn't mean to hurt the policeman." I said, "But it wasn't an accident." M Haddon, The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time (David Fickling Books, London 2004) Asperger's syndrome was only formally accepted into the ICD and DSM classifications of psychiatric disorders in the 1990s. It has been written about extensively in the scholarly literature for two decades, but diagnostic tools are continuing to evolve, as well as understanding of its genetic component and its brain development features. In the criminal law context it poses difficult issues at trial and at sentencing. Contextualising Asperger's disorder within current knowledge about autism spectrum disorders, this article identifies relevant court decisions internationally, and particularly scrutinises selected decisions in the United Kingdom (Sultan v The Queen [2008] EWCA Crim 6), Victoria, Australia (Parish v DPP [2007] VSC 494), and Nova Scotia, Canada (R v Kagan (2007) 261 NSR (2d) 285; (2008) 261 NSR (2d) 168). It argues that Asperger's disorder needs to be distinguished by the courts from other disorders, such as personality disorders and intellectual disability, and should be recognised as having the potential to affect in important, albeit subtle, ways defendants' thinking and understanding, as well as their emotional responses to situations that are to them traumatic. This makes Asperger's disorder relevant to a number of threshold issues in relation to criminal responsibility as well as to criminal culpability. Key words: Asperger's disorderautism spectrumcapacity to form intentiondiminished responsibilityfitness for interviewfitness to stand trialinsanitymental illnessmental impairmentself-defencesentencing Acknowledgement The authors acknowledge the helpful suggestions and comments on an earlier draft of this piece by Dr Patricia Molloy and by Jamie Walvisch. Notes 1. Although "Asperger's syndrome" is best known as such, it is classified as a "disorder" within the DSM. Accordingly, it is referred to in this way in this article. Just as it is inappropriate to designate people as their disorder (eg "schizophrenics", "depressives", etc), the approach adopted herein is to refrain from use of the terms "Aspergians" and "Aspies" which are employed by some, including by some of those with the disorder. 2. See M Fitzgerald, 'Autism: Asperger's Syndrome – History and Fits Descriptions' in L Rausch, JL Rausch, JE Johnson and MF Casanova MF (eds), Asperger's Disorder (Informa Health Care, New York 2008); 'History of Asperger Syndrome' < http://www.asperger-syndrome.me.uk/> accessed 5 March 2009; N De Spiegeleer and J Appelboom, 'Le Syndrome de l'Asperger Existe-t-il?' (June 2007) 55 Neuropsychiatrie de l'enfance et de l'adolescence 137. Importantly, in the DSM, Asperger's disorder is placed on the Axis I, rather than the Axis II, disorders. 3. This term was first employed in M DeMyer, J Hingtgen and R Jackson, 'Infantile Autism Reviewed: A Decade of Research' (1981) 7 Schizophrenic Bulletin 388. See T Attwood, 'Is There a Difference Between Asperger's Syndrome and High Functioning Autism?' < http://www. tonyattwood.com.au/articles/pdfs/attwood1. pdf > accessed 31 December 2008. 4. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 5. H Asperger, 'Autistic Psychopathy in Childhood' in U Frith (ed), Autism and Asperger's Syndrome (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991). Just before, Kanner described a significantly similar syndrome: L Kanner, 'Autistic Disturbances of Affective Contact' (1943) 2 Nervous Child 217. 6. See too T Attwood, Asperger's Syndrome: A Guide for Parents and Professionals (Jessica Kingsley, London 1998). 7. See though for the argument that Asperger's subjects suffered from autism, JN Miller and S Ozonoff, 'Did Asperger's Cases Have Asperger's Disorder?' (1997) 38 Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 247. 8. See also K Chawarska, A Klin and FR Volkmer, Autism Spectrum Disorders in Infants and Toddlers (Guilford Press, New York 2006); MJ Carly, Asperger's from the Inside Out (Perigee, New York 2008); B O'Reilly and S Smith, Australian Autism Handbook (Jane Curry Publishing, Sydney 2008); NJ Patrick, Social Skills for Teenagers and Adults with Asperger Syndrome (Jessica Kingsley, New York 2008). 9. L Wing, 'Asperger's Syndrome: A Clinical Account' (1981) 11 Psychological Medicine 115. 10. E Burgoine and L Wing, 'Identical Triplets with Asperger's Syndrome' (1990) 143 British Journal of Psychiatry 261. 11. S Dodd, Understanding Autism (Elsevier, Sydney 2005) 131–32; see also JL Klin et al, JE Johnson and MF Casanova, Asperger's Disorder (Informa Health Care, New York 2008). 12. See eg K Sofronoff and T Attwood, 'A Cognitive Behaviour Therapy Intervention for Anxiety in Children with Asperger's Syndrome' (2003) 4 Good Autism Practice 228. 13. See eg the evidence in R v Kagan (2004) 185 CCC (3d) 417 at [10]. 14. See eg Adams & Simpson [2008] FMCAfam 1327. 15. Especially if Asperger's is accompanied by depression: see CA, Re [2006] QGAAT 2. 16. See T Attwood, The Complete Guide to Asperger's Syndrome (Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London 2007) at 207. 17. Benoit-Otis v The Queen [2004] 2 CTC 2977; (2003) 57 DTC 3998 at [31]–[32]. 18. See JR Brasic, 'Pervasive Developmental Disorder: Asperger's Syndrome' (11 March 2008) < http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/912296-overview> accessed 31 December 2008. 19. See Klin et al, (n 11); F Volkmar, A Klin and D Pauls, 'Nosological and Genetic Aspects of Asperger Syndrome' (1998) 28 Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 457. 20. See Buchanan & Gardiner [2009] FamCA 47. 21. Viewed in terms of the notion of "emotional intelligence", ie in a broader context of functioning, those with Asperger's syndrome have a significant deficit. 22. Dodd (n 11) 142; see too M Fleisher, Making Sense of the Unfeasible: My Life Journey with Asperger Syndrome (Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London 2003). For a more positive account of the potential for relationships, G Slater-Walker and C Slater-Walker, An Asperger Marriage (Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London 2002). 23. Dodd (n 11) 146. The question has arisen in the popular domain by the portrayal of Dr Mary McDonnell, a surgeon with Asperger's on Grey's Anatomy: see http://www.greysanatomyinsider. com/2008/11/mary-mcdonnell-speaks-on-greys-anatomy-role/ accessed 25 March 2009. See too the eloquent personal account of JE Robison, Look Me in the Eye: My Life with Asperger's (Bantam, Sydney 2007). 24. L Willey, Asperger Syndrome in the Family (Jessica Kingsley, London 2001); see also L Willey, Pretending to be Normal (Jessica Kingsley, London 1999). 25. L Wing, The Autistic Spectrum: A Guide for Parents and Professionals (Constable Publishers, London 1996); L Wing, The Autistic Spectrum (Constable & Co Ltd, London 1997). 26. N Hawkes, 'Why a Dash of Autism May Be Key to Success' (2001) < http://www.autismtoday.com/articles/Dash_Of_ Autism.htm> accessed 26 December 2008. 27. L Wing, 'Asperger's Syndrome: A Clinical Account' (1981) 11 Psychological Medicine 115. 28. D Mawson, A Grounds and D Tantam, 'Violence and Asperger's Syndrome: A Case Study' (1985) 147 British Journal of Psychiatry 566; see also M Ghaziuddin, L Tsai and N Ghaziuddin, 'Brief Report: Violence and Asperger's Syndrome, a Critique' (1991) 21 Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 349. 29. G Simblett and D Wilson, 'Asperger's Syndrome: Three Cases and a Discussion' (1993) 37 Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 85. 30. See too I Everall and A Lecouteur, 'Fire Setting in an Adolescent Boy with Asperger's Syndrome' (1990) 152 British Journal of Psychiatry 284. 31. J Barry-Walsh and P Mullen P, 'Forensic Aspects of Asperger's Syndrome' (2004) 15(1) Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology 96. 32. See M Ghaziuddin, L Tsai and N Ghaziuddin, 'Brief Report: Violence and Asperger's Syndrome, a Critique' (1991) 21 Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 349; A Gillot, F Furniss and A Walter, 'Anxiety in High-functioning Children with Autism' (2001) 5 Autism 277; HS Duggal, 'Bipolar Disorder with Asperger's Disorder' (2003) 160 American Journal of Psychiatry 184. 33. See, however, D Murrie, J Warren, M Kristiansson and P Dietz, 'Asperger's Syndrome in Forensic Settings' (2002) 1 International Journal of Forensic Mental Health 59; BG Haskins and JA Silva, 'Asperger's Disorder and Criminal Behavior: Forensic Psychiatric Considerations' (2006) 34 Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law 374 < http://www.jaapl.org/cgi/reprint/34/3/374.pdf > accessed 6 December 2008; JA Silva, MM Ferrari and GB Leong, 'Asperger's Disorder and the Origins of the Unabomber' (2003) 24 American Journal of Forensic Psychiatry 5; J Barry-Walsh and P Mullen (n 31). 34. At 6. 35. See eg R v EH [2008] QCA 67; R v JO [2008] QCA 260. 36. T Attwood, The Complete Guide to Asperger's Syndrome (Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London 2007) 109. 37. See P Paterson, 'How Well Do Young Offenders with Asperger's Syndrome Cope in Custody?' (2008) 36(1) British Journal of Learning Disabilities 54. 38. R v Mueller [2005] NSWCCA 47 at [92]. See too McC v Regina [2007] NSWCCA 25. 39. See PE Mullen, 'Forensic Report' < http://kildall.apana.org.au/autism/articles/bryant. html> accessed 6 December 2008. For Bryant's sentencing, see < http://www. geniac.net/portarthur/sentence. htm> accessed 31 December 2008. 40. For a useful summary of the critiques, see Attwood (n 36) 42–44. In 03-004 [2002] VMHRB 7 the Victorian Mental Health Review Board found a person with Asperger's not to have a mental illness within the meaning of s 8 of the Mental Health Act 1986 (Vic). 41. A Gillberg, A Guide to Asperger Syndrome (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002). 42. Attwood (n 36) 45–46. 43. See eg S Stokes, 'Children with Asperger's Syndrome: Characteristics/Learning Styles and Intervention Strategies' < http://www.specialed.us/autism/asper/asper11. html> accessed 31 December 2008. 44. M Garnett and T Attwood, 'The Australian Scale for Asperger's Syndrome' in T Attwod (ed), Asperger's Syndrome: A Guide for Parents and Professionals (Jessica Kingsley Publications, London 1998). 45. C Gillberg, C Gillberg, M Rastan and E Wentz, 'The Asperger Syndrome (and High Functioning Autism) Diagnostic Interview (ASD): A Preliminary Study of a New Structured Interview' (2001) 5 Autism 57. 46. BS Myles, BJ Bock and RL Simpson, Asperger Syndrome Diagnostic Scale Examiner's Manual (PRO-ED, Austin 2001). 47. S Ehlers, C Gillberg and L Wing L, 'A Screening Questionnaire for Asperger Syndrome and Other High-Functioning Autism Spectrum Disorders in School Age Children' (1999) 29 Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 129. 48. J Williams, F Scott, C Stott, C Allison, P Bolton, S Baron-Cohen and C Brayne, 'The CAST (Childhood Asperger Syndrome Test): Test Accuracy' (2005) 9 Autism 45. See too Autism Research Centre, 'Childhood Asperger Syndrome Test' < http://www.autismresearchcentre. com/tests/cast_test.asp> accessed 31 December 2008. 49. J Gilliam, GADS Examiner's Manual (PRO-ED, Austin 2002). 50. D Krug and J Arick, Krug's Asperger's Disorder Index (PRO-ED, Austin 2002). 51. S Baron-Cohen, S Wheelwright, R Skinner, J Martin and E Clubley, 'The Autism Spectrum Quotients (AQ): Evidence from Asperger Syndrome/High-Functioning Autism, Males and Females, Scientists and Mathematicians' (2001) 31 Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 5. 52. S Baron-Cohen and S Wheelwright, 'The Empathy Quotient: An Investigation of Adults with Asperger Syndrome' (2004) 34 Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 163. 53. S Baron-Cohen, S Wheelwright, J Hill, Y Raste and I Plumb, 'The 'Reading the Mind in the Eyes' Test, Revised Version: A Study with Normal Adults with Asperger Syndrome or High-Functioning Autism' (2001) 42 Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 241. 54. MD Rutherford, S Baron-Cohen and S Wheelwright, 'Reading the Mind in the Voice: A Study of Normal Adults and Adults with Asperger Syndrome and High-Functioning Autism' (2002) 32 Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 189. 55. S Baron-Cohen and S Wheelwright, 'The Friendship Questionnaire: Investigation of Adults with Asperger Syndrome or High-Functioning Autism, and Normal Sex Differences' (2003) 43 Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 509. 56. L Nylander and C Gillberg, 'Screening for Autism Spectrum Disorders in Adult Psychiatric Out-patients' (2001) 103 Acta Psychiatria Scandinavica 428. 57. SLS Tests, 'The Self Test for Asperger Disorder' < http://www.slshealth.com/residential/behavioral_info/selftest.asp?CatID=58> accessed 31 December 2008. 58. J Campbell, 'Diagnostic Assessment of Asperger's Disorder: A Review of Five Third-Party Rating Scales' (2005) 35 Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 25. 59. Asperger (n 36). 60. See also D Murray, Coming Out Asperger: Diagnosis, Disclosure and Self-Confidence (Jessica Kingsley Publishers London, 2006). 61. [2008] EWCA Crim 6. 62. At [10]. 63. At [19]. 64. At [20]. 65. At [21]. 66. At [34]. 67. [2007] VSC 494. 68. At [10]. 69. At [11]. 70. At [11]. 71. At [11]. 72. At [16]. 73. At [17]. 74. For reasons that are not clear, the disorder is wrongly spelled throughout the judgement. 75. At [116]. 76. At [116]. 77. At [126]. 78. (2007) 261 NSR (2d) 285; (2008) 261 NSR (2d) 168. 79. R v Lavallee [1990] 1 SCR 852; 55 CCC (3d) 97 (SCC) at [51]. 80. (2007) 261 NSR (2d) 285 at [28]–[30]. 81. (2007) 261 NSR (2d) 285 at [34]. 82. Compare R v Tarr, 2009 NSPC 2 at [28]. 83. (2007) 261 NSR (2d) 285 at [37]. 84. (2008) 261 NSR (2d) 168 at [22]. 85. Ibid. 86. See eg R v Maxwell (2007) 314 NBR (2d) 191 at [43]. 87. See A North, A Russell and S Gudjonsson, 'An Investigation of Potential Vulnerability During Police Interrogation of Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Focus on Interrogative Suggestibility and Compliance', paper presented at the 1st International Symposium on Autism Spectrum Disorders in a Forensic Context, Copenhagen, Demark, September 2005. 88. See I Freckelton and H Selby, Expert Evidence: Law, Practice, Procedure and Advocacy (Thomson, Sydney 2009). 89. See ibid. 90. See R v M (1977) 16 SASR 589; R v Whitty (1993) 66 A Crim R 462; C v DPP [1995] 2 All ER 43; M Grove, 'Are You Old Enough? In defence of Doli Incapax' (1996) Law Institute Journal 38; P Blazey-Ayoub, 'Doli Incapax' (1996) 20 Criminal Law Journal 34; T Crofts, 'Doli Incapax: Why Children Deserve Its Protection' (2003) 10(3) Murdoch Electronic Journal of Law < http://www.murdoch. edu.au/elaw/issues/v10n3/crofts103_text. html> accessed 31 December 2008. 91. See Attwood (n 36) 234. 92. At 104. 93. See the argument put in R v Reynolds [2004] EWCA Crim 1834. See also D Schwartz-Watts, 'Asperger's Disorder and Murder' (2005) 33(3) Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law 390. 94. See eg R v Mrzljak [2004] QCA 420 at [88]. 95. See for instance the reasoning of McDougall J in R v Kagan (2007) 261 NSR (2d) 285; (2008) 261 NSR (2d) 168. 96. See eg Parish v DPP [2007] VSC 494; Sultan v The Queen [2008] EWCA Crim 6. 97. See Hawkins v The Queen [1994] HCA 28; (1994) 179 CLR 500. 98. See Barry-Walsh and Mullen (n 31). 99. Compare J Enayati, M Grann, S Lubbe and S Fazel, 'Psychiatric Morbidity in Arsonists Referred for Forensic Psychiatric Assessment in Sweden' (2008) 19(2) Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology 139. 100. See eg R v Petroulias (No 36) [2008] NSWSC 626; R v Walker [2008] NZHC 1114 at [17]; United States v Lange [2006] USCA7 220; 445 F 3d 983. 101. [2007] VSCA 102 at [25]; see also I Freckelton, 'Sentencing and Mental Impairment' (2007) 14 Psychiatry, Psychology and Law 359. 102. [2007] VSCA 102 at [25]. 103. R v Verdins [2007] VSCA 102 at [32]. 104. R v Olbrich [1999] HCA 54; (1999) 199 CLR 270. 105. Calling evidence from a psychologist in this regard is risky: see R v Petroulias (No. 36) [2008] NSWSC 626 at [164]; R v Peisley (1990) 54 A Crim R 42 at 52. See generally I Freckelton and H Selby, Expert Evidence: Law, Practice, Procedure and Advocacy (4th edn Thomson, Sydney 2009). 106. FAM v R [2008] NSWCCA 167 at [14]. 107. R v Modra [2005] SADC 169 at [72]. 108. Hopper v The Queen [2003] WASCA 153 at [70]. 109. See eg R v Porritt [2008] ACTSC 33 at [136]; Chandler v R [2008] NSWCCA 240; R v Jensen [2007] VSC 199 at [39]. 110. See eg the argument put (with support from Dr Wing) in R v Brand [1999] EWCA Crim 732. 111. Eg in relation to tax: see Benoit-Otis v The Queen [2004] 2 CTC 2977; (2003) 57 DTC 3998. 112. See eg Hopper v The Queen [2003] WASCA 153 at [12]. 113. [2004] NSWCCA 247 at [41], [43]. 114. An indication of the limits to the understanding of the court was its equation of the disorder with a "personality disorder". 115. [2006] NZCA 286. 116. R v Hare [2007] NSWCCA 303 at [21]; Richard v Canada [2003] TCJ No 28 (QL). 117. Hopper v The Queen [2003] WASCA 153 at [56]. 118. See eg D Wexler, Essays in Therapeutic Jurisprudence (Carolina Academic Press, Durham, Nth Carolina 1991); D Wexler and B Winick (eds), Law in a Therapeutic Key (Carolina Academic Press, Durham, Nth Carolina 1996); D Wexler, Law As a Therapeutic Agent (Carolina Academic Press, Durham, Nth Carolina 2002); B Winick, Civil Commitment; A Therapeutic Jurisprudence Model (Carolina Academic Press, Durham, Nth Carolina 2005).