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Kemal Atatürk: Giving a New Nation a New History

2014; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 50; Issue: 5 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/00263206.2014.913574

1743-7881

Clive Foss,

Islamic Studies and History

AbstractKemal Atatürk wanted to break with the past by providing his new nation with a new history that would give the Turks pride by showing that they were an ancient and civilized nation. The textbook produced under his personal supervision presented the Turks as central to the development of virtually all ancient civilizations. This became an official doctrine promulgated in historical congresses and many publications. It drew heavily on European writers, among them Gobineau and H.G. Wells. Although presented as a novel achievement, the new history had its roots in the recent Turkish past whose ideas were given a coherent form by Atatürk. Notes1. Strictly speaking, he was called Mustafa Kemal at the time discussed here; he received the honorary surname Atatürk in 1934, after which he signed himself 'K. Atatürk', but since that name is the most familiar, it will be used here for convenience. He was also dubbed the Ghazi or 'vanquisher of infidels'.2. B. Ersanlı, İktidar ve Tarih [Political Power and History] (Istanbul: İletişim, 2003), pp.47–99, presents a comprehensive survey of Ottoman historiography; cf. E. Copeaux, Espaces et temps de la nation turque (Paris 1997), pp.344–9; and D. Kushner, The Rise of Turkish Nationalism 1876–1908 (London, 1977), pp.27–40. See also the important, concise study of B. Lewis, 'History-writing and National Revival in Turkey', Middle Eastern Affairs, Vol.4 (1953), pp.218–27, and for the curriculum, M. Çıkar, Von der osmanischen dynastie zur türkischen Nation: Politische Gemeinschaften in osmanisch-türkischen Schulbüchern der Jahre 1878–1939 (Darmstadt, 2001), pp.27–85.3. See J. Landau, The Politics of Pan-Islam (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), pp.9–72.4. L. Cahun, Introduction de l'histoire de l'Asie. Turcs et Mongols des origines à 1405 (Paris: Colin, 1896).5. These inscriptions, discovered in western Mongolia, were deciphered by Vilhelm Thomsen in 1893; he published their texts with translations as Inscriptions de l'Orkhon déchifrées (Helsingfors: Société de littérature finnoise, 1896).6. See J. Landau, Pan-Turkism (London: Hurst, 1995), pp.29–56.7. For Atatürk's educational reforms, see İ. Başgöz and H.E. Wilson, Educational Problems in Turkey 1920–1940 (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University, 1968), pp.45–204; note the great increase in secondary education: in 1930, 22 secondary schools with 5,699 students; in 1935, 66 with 13,622 students: ibid., unnumbered Appendix.8. [Committee for the Study of Turkish History], Tarih (Ankara: Devlet Matbaası, 1931; subsequent editions have slightly different page numbers). Key passages from the introduction were translated by Major F. Rynd, 'Turkish Racial Theories', Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, Vol.21 (1934), pp.476–87.9. Born in 1907, she was, like Kemal, a native of Salonica where their families were acquainted. She studied anthropology in Geneva, took a PhD in sociology, and became professor of history in Ankara University. Atatürk gave her the surname İnan ('believe') which she incorporated into a new name, A. Afetinan. She died in 1985.10. For what follows, see Afet, 'Atatürk'ün Türk tarih tezi' [Atatürk's Turkish History Thesis], in A. İnan and E.Z. Kural (eds.), Atatürk hakkında konferanslar [Lectures about Atatürk] (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1946), pp.55–65; cf. Afet's shorter account: 'Atatürk ve tarih tezi' [Atatürk and the History Thesis], Belleten, Vol.3, No.10 (1939), pp.243–6.11. Geographical Section of the Naval Intelligence Division, Naval Staff, Admiralty, A Manual on the Turanians and Pan-Turanism (London [1918]), p.120.12. See, for example, E. Akurgal, 'Tarih ilmi ve Atatürk' [The Science of History and Atatürk], Belleten, p.30 (1956), pp.571–84; and M.T. Emiroğlu, 'Atatürk'ün tarihe verdiği önem' [The İmportance Atatürk Gave to History], Atatürk Haftası Armağanı, Vol.10 (2003), pp.33–42.13. For a vivid account, see Afet, 'Atatürk ve tarih tezi'; and M. Göker, 'Atatürk'ün huzurunda' [In the Presence of Atatürk], Belleten, Vol.3, No.10 (1939), pp.385–8.14. All the pages that bear Kemal's underlinings or annotations are reproduced in the 24 volumes of Atatürkün Okuduğu Kitaplar [The Books Atatürk Read], ed. R. Cengiz (Ankara: Anıtkabir Derneği, 2001).15. Ibid., Vol.X, pp.263–315, with extensive annotations. In this work, James Churchward conjures up a vast continent in the middle of the Pacific, the original home of mankind, which sank beneath the sea in a catastrophe 12,000 years ago. Atatürk was presumably attracted by the notion that the survivors of Mu took refuge in its outlying colony, the Uighur Empire in Central Asia, from which they became ancestors of all the Aryan races. See the comprehensive discussion of Z. Toprak, Cumhuriyet ve Antropoloji [The Republic and Anthropology] (Istanbul: Doğan Kitap, 2012), pp.484–529.16. Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları (Istanbul: Türk Tarihinin Tetkik Cemiyeti, 1930), discussed by Ersanlı, İktidar ve Tarih, pp.119–25; I. Beşikçi, Türk Tarih Tezi Günes-dil teorisi ve Kürt Sorunu [The Turkish History Thesis, the Sun-Language Theory and the Kurdish Question] (Istanbul: Yurt Kitap-Yayın, 1978), pp.26–34; and Copeaux, Espaces et temps de la nation turque, p.59f. (these are the three fundamental works on the History Thesis). The introduction and the chapter on Central Asia, which contained the most novel ideas about the Turks spreading civilization from Central Asia, were published as a separate brochure (Türk Tarihinin Ana Hatları Methal Kısmı [Introductory Section of the Main Lines of Turkish History], Istanbul: Devlet Matbaası, 1931) in 30,000 copies distributed to the schools: Beşikçi, Türk Tarih Tezi, p.33f.17. Some of his corrections are illustrated in Belleten, Vol.3, No.10 (1939), plates 82–91.18. Turkish Hearths was a nationalist cultural organization founded by the Young Turks with branches all over the country. Its membership included many of the leading historians of the day; it provided a cultural link between the late Ottomans and the Republic. It was closed in 1930 and its functions transferred to the Peoples' Houses, run by Atatürk's political party, part of the effort to bring intellectual life under the control of the state. See F. Georgeon, 'Les foyers turques à l'époque kémaliste', Turcica, Vol.14 (1982), pp.168–215.19. See the discussion of Beşikçi, Türk Tarih Tezi, pp.18–23. Afet's speech is reproduced in U. İğdemir, Cumhuriyetin 50. Yılında Türk Tarih Kurumu [The Turkish Historical Society in the Fiftieth Year of the Republic] (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1973), pp.67–71.20. A. Afetinan, Atatürk hakkında hatıralar ve belgeler [Memoirs and Documents about Atatürk] (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1959), pp.262–9.21. Since 1928, the Ministry of Education had been issuing lists of texts that could be used in the schools; after 1933, only history and civics books published by the Ministry were allowed: see Çıkar, Von der osmanischen dynastie zur türkischen Nation, p.94f and Başgöz and Wilson, Educational Problems in Turkey, pp.115–19.22. See the general summary in Tarih, Vol.I, pp.25–53; and for the individual states, ibid., pp.54–342. The thesis is central to the introductory chapters, but only casually appears in the rest of the volume which presents a conventional account of ancient history.23. For what follows, see Tarih, Vol.I, pp.54–85 (China, Central Asia, India); pp.86–100 (Sumeria); pp.127–49 (Anatolia); pp.101–26 (Egypt); p.162f. (Hebrews); pp.164–76 (Iran).24. Greeks: ibid., pp.184–259.25. Akalar etc.: -lar or -ler is the plural suffix in Turkish.26. Rome; ibid., pp.260–346.27. Ibid., p.336.28. Ibid., p.32f.; Tarih, Vol.II, p.14.29. Tarih, Vol.II, p.16.30. For a concise, Kemalist view of the importance of the new history, called 'a revolution without precedent in universal history', see T. Alp, Le Kémalisme (Paris: Alcan, 1937), pp.109–29; cf. pp.130–33 on the Sumerian and Hittite Turks. M. Şükrü Hanioğlu discusses the thesis in the context of Kemalist ideology, especially nationalism, in Atatürk: An Intellectual Biography (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011), pp.160–98. See also Toprak, Cumhuriyet ve Antropoloji, pp.244–8.31. That is treated elegantly by Geoffrey Lewis in The Turkish Language Reform (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp.57–74, and in detail by J.P. Laut, Das Türkische Als Ursprache? (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2000).32. Birinci Türk Tarih Kongresi [First Turkish History Congress] (Ankara: Ministry of Education, c.1932), discussed by Beşikçi, Türk Tarih Tezi, pp.44–81, Ersanli, İktidar ve Tarih, pp.139–88, and Copeaux, Espaces et temps de la nation turque, pp.66–9.33. 'Zayti French', director of the oriental section of the Budapest municipal library, gave a presentation about ancient India (ibid., pp.366–9) but does not appear on the official list of participants.34. Ibid., pp.5–13.35. Ibid., p.15.36. Ibid., p.364. For other examples of slavish adulation of the Ghazi, see Beşikçi, Türk Tarih Tezi, pp.53–60. Despite all this talk of the 'great Turkish race', the History Thesis was not racist: it glorified the ancient (and by implication the modern) Turks, but did not claim that they were somehow superior, nor did it denigrate other peoples.37. Birinci Türk Tarih Kongresi, pp.18–41.38. Ibid., p.41.39. 'Türk Irk ve Medeniyet Tarihine Umumi bir Bakış' [A General View of the History of the Turkish Race and Civilization], ibid., pp.99–161.40. Ibid., p.131.41. Ibid., p.99.42. Note, for example, the case of Zeki Velidi Toğan, professor of Turkish history at Istanbul University. When he questioned what was being said about the origins and early history of the Turks, he was attacked at length by Reşit Galip bey and Sadri Maksudi, professor in the Law Faculty of Ankara, then denounced in such strong personal terms by Şemsettin [Günaltay] that he soon left the country. Ibid., pp.167–93, 389–400. Similarly, Avram Galanti, professor of ancient oriental history in Istanbul University, raised some quite specific criticism about such questions as Egyptian origins, or the Hittite language, only to attract a long and hostile response from Samih Rifat bey of the Society for the Study of Turkish History: ibid., pp.445–80.43. Ersanlı, İktidar ve Tarih, p.199.44. İğdemir, Cumhuriyetin 50, pp.26–30.45. Ikinci Turk Tarih Kongresi [Second Turkish History Congress] (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1943); discussed by Beşikçi, Türk Tarih Tezi, pp.88–101, and Ersanlı, İktidar ve Tarih, pp.189–229.46. See Ç. Atakuman, 'Cradle or Crucible: Anatolia and Archaeology in the Early Years of the Turkish Republic (1923–1938)', Journal of Social Archaeology, Vol.8 (2008), pp.214–35. The first part of the article also discusses the thesis and the first two History Congresses. See also M. Ergin, 'Archaeology and the Perception of Greek, Roman and Byzantine Eras in Early Republican Turkey', in S. Redford and N. Ergin (eds.), Perceptions of the Past in the Turkish Republic: Classical and Byzantine Periods (Ancient Near Eastern Studies Supplement 31; Leuven, 2010), pp.13–33.47. 'Şark kaynaklarına göre Müslümanlıktan evvel Türk Kültürünün Arap Yarımadasına İzleri' [Traces of Pre-Islamic Turkish Culture in the Arabian Peninsula According to Oriental Sources], İkinci Kongre (above, n. 45) 280–289 and 'Peygamber ve Türkler [The Prophet and the Turks]', ibid., pp.1013–44.48. Izmirli (previous note), p.285; E. Pittard, 'Neolitik Devirde Küçük Asya ve Avrupa arasında Antropolojik Münasebetler' [Anthropological Relations between Asia Minor and Europe in the Neolithic Age], ibid., p.72.49. S. Günaltay, 'Türk Tarih Tezi hakkındaki intikatların mahiyeti ve tezin kat'i zaferi' [The Nature of Criticisms of the Turkish History Thesis and the Decisive Victory of the Thesis], Belleten, Vol.2, No.7/8 (1938), pp.337–65.50. Afet in Birinci Kongre (above. n.37), p.31. For the role of anthropology in all this, see the wide-ranging study of Toprak, Cumhuriyet ve Antropoloji, which often touches on the History Thesis and the congresses.51. Resit in Birinci Kongre (above, n.39) p.159.52. 'Türkerinin Antropolojisi' [Anthropology of the Turks], ibid., pp.271–78. For Şevket Aziz, see Toprak, Cumhuriyet ve Antropoloji, pp.197–207.53. A. Inan, l'Anatolie, le pays de la 'race' turque, recherché sur les caractères anthropologiques des populations de la Turquie (Geneva: Georg, 1941), especially pp.37f. and 163–70. It was published in Turkish in 1947: Türkiye Halkının Antropolojik Karakterleri ve Türkiye Tarihi, Türk Irkının Vatanı Anadolu [Anthropological Characteristics of the Turkish People and Turkish History; Anatolia, Homeland of the Turkish Race] (Ankara, 1947). See the commentary of Beşikçi, Türk Tarih Tezi, pp.121–8, and of Toprak, Cumhuriyet ve Antropoloji, pp.99–123.54. For reflections of the thesis in textbooks and journal articles of the 1930s, see Beşikçi, Türk Tarih Tezi, pp.177–92, and for its later influence and fate, Copeaux, Espaces et temps de la nation turque, pp.75–180, 293–316.55. Yakın Şark [The Near East] (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1937), pp.106–26, 301f., 395; Anatolia: Anadolu: en eski çaglardan ahameniş'ler istilâsina kadar [Anatolia from Earliest Times to the Achaemenid Conquest] (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1946), pp.66–74, 174–9; Iran: Iran Tarihi [History of Iran] (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1948). For Günaltay and his works, see Toprak, Cumhuriyet ve Antropoloji, pp.254–93.56. A. Ayda, 'Pelasglar Kim Idi?' [Who were the Pelasgians?], Belleten, Vol.46 (1982), pp.475–86.57. A. Kemali, Erzincan Tarihi [History of Erzincan] ([Istanbul: Resimli Ay Matbaası], 1932), p.9f. (repeated in the 1992 edition [İstanbul: Kaynak Yayınları], p.14f.). The places that appear in this and the following books are provinces of eastern Turkey, the region occupied by Kurds and Armenians.58. M.S. San, Doğu Anadolu ve Muş'un İzahlı Kronolojik Tarihi [Chronological Explanatory History of Eastern Anatolia and Mush] (Ankara: Türk Kültürünü Araştırma Enstitüsü, 1966), pp.91–5.59. F. Kırzıoğlu: 'Armenya/Yukarı Eller'de 2700 Yıllık Türk Varlığı' [The 2,700 Year Turkish Presence in Armenia/the Upper Lands], in Atatürk Univertisesi Kuruluşunun XX. Yıl Armaganı: Ermeniler Hakkında Makaleler – Derlemeler [Commemorative Volume for the 20th Anniversary of the Founding of Atatürk University: Collected Articles about the Armenians] (Ankara: Kalite Matbaası, 1978), pp.45–65; I. Alpaslan, Ağrı, Anadolunun Giriş Kapısı [Ağrı, Entrance Gateway of Anatolia] (Ankara: Türk Kültürünü Araştırma Enstitüsü, 1984).60. See the works of Besim Atalay and Suleyman Sabri Pasha discussed below.61. For the Turkish view of the Kurds, see Beşikçi, Türk Tarih Tezi, especially p.167f., 193–207, and for the Armenians, C. Foss, 'Armenian History as Seen by Twentieth Century Turkish Historians', Armenian Review, Vol.45 (1992), pp.1–52.62. Kemali, Erzincan Tarihi, pp.177–9; among the local historians, Kemali's view is the most comprehensive.63. C. Bender, Kürt Tarih ve Uygarlığı [Kurdish History and Civilization] (Istanbul: Kaynak Yayınları, 1991), pp.9 (opening), 11–31 (ancient peoples), 71–8 (Zoroaster). The antiquity of the Kurds is also discussed, for example, in B. Amedi, Kürtler ve Kurdistan Tarihi [History of the Kurds and Kurdistan] (Istanbul: Fırat-Dicle Yayınları , 1991), pp.14–50. The notion goes back at least to the history of M. Emin Zeki, published in Kurdish in 1931, in Arabic in 1939 and in Turkish in 1977 as Kürdistan Tarihi [History of Kurdistan] (Istanbul: Komal Yayınları, 1977), see pp.37–63. For a sober account of Kurdish origins and early history, see B. Nikitine, Les Kurdes (Paris, 1956), pp.1–22, and for history as an expression of Kurdish nationalism, the essays of Hamit Bozarslan and Amir Hassanpour in A. Vali (ed.), Essays on the Origins of Kurdish Nationalism (Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2003).64. Bender, Kürt Tarih ve Uygarlığı, pp.42–9.65. For the origins of the name, either from the Hittites or their 'ancestors' the Hata Turks, see G. Jäschke, 'Alexandrette und Hatay', Die Welt des Islams, Vol.22 (1940), pp.149–54.66. Çıkar, Von der osmanischen dynastie zur türkischen Nation, p.91.67. The Gothic History of Jordanes, trans. C.C. Mierow (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1915); sections 9–130 deal with ancient Gothic 'history'; see also the useful chronological table on p.38f.68. A. Rosenberg, Der Mythus des 20. Jahrhunderts (Munich: Hoheneichen-Verlag, 1933; many editions). Partial English translation, with useful introduction and bibliography in Race and Race History and Other Essays by Alfred Rosenberg, ed. R. Pois (New York, c.1973). See also the summary and analysis in A. Chandler, Rosenberg's Nazi Myth (New York: Cornell University Press, 1968). The work and its author are the subject of a very favourable analysis by A. Baeumler, Alfred Rosenberg und der Mythus des 20. Jahrhunderts (Munich: Hoheneichen-Verlag, 1943).69. Rosenberg, Mythus, p.22; for what follows, see pp.23–34.70. Quote: ibid., p.34; Greeks: pp.34–54.71. Romans: ibid., pp.54–81.72. See the catalogue of his personal library in Anıtkabir, Atatürk ve Türk Devrimi Kütüphanesi Kataloğu [Catalogue of the Library of Atatürk's Mausoleum, Atatürk and the Turkish Revolution] (Ankara: Genelkurmay Basımevi, 1993), pp.421–743, as well as the 24 volumes of Atatürkün Okuduğu Kitaplar.73. Le Comte de Gobineau, Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines (Paris: Firmin Didot , 1854), cited here from the more widely available Pléiade edition, Gobineau, œuvres, Vol.I (Paris, 1983). The English translation by A. Collins, The Inequality of Human Races (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1915), includes only Book I. Likewise, the extracts translated in M.D. Biddiss (ed.), Gobineau Selected Political Writings (London: Cape, 1970) are mostly from Book I.74. Origins: Gobineau, Essai sur l'inégalité des races humaines, p.272; Whites: p.227; Germans: p.272.75. Ibid., Book II, chap.I, esp. pp.353–7 for origins and spread of the White race.76. Ibid., Book III, chap.I, pp.479–81.77. Atatürkün Okuduğu Kitaplar, Vol.XXI, pp.91–215.78. I. Türk Tarih Kongresi, p.39.79. Afetinan, Atatürk hakkında hatıralar ve belgeler, p.269.80. A. Afetinan, 'Balkan Antantı (1934)' [The Balkan Entente], Belleten, Vol.32 (1968), pp.285–91; cf. I. Arar, 'Atatürk'ün günümüz olaylarına da ışık tutan bazı konuşmaları' [Some Speeches of Atatürk that Cast Light on Events of our Day], Belleten, Vol.45 (1981), pp.10–14, where Atatürk describes himself as a blood-brother of the Bulgarians.81. S. Cronin (ed.), The Making of Modern Iran (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003), pp.99–119.82. S. Bailly, Lettres sur l'Atlantide de Platon et sur l'ancienne histoire de l'Asie (London and Paris: chez les frères Debure, 1779), pp.204, 252, 415; see p.230 for the climate change and note that there is more than one edition of this work with the same title page but different page numbers.83. H.G. Wells, The Outline of History, 'definitive edition' (London: George Newnes, 1923); for the seas and nomads, see pp.150, 181. The Turkish translation was published by the state printing house in Istanbul in 192784. Aryans: ibid., pp.134–6.85. Ibid., pp.181, 254.86. China: ibid., p.88; Egypt: p.86; Sumerians: p.81; Cretans: p.93.87. Atatürkün okuduğu kitaplar, Vol.II, pp.135–490.88. 'Habitat et migrations préhistoriques des races dites touraniennes', Congrès international des orientalistes, compte-rendu de la première session, Vol.I (Paris: Maisonneuve, 1876), pp.431–441.89. L'Asie ancienne centrale et sud-orientale d'après Ptolémée was issued in June 1930 by Payot. Atatürk's reading: Atatürkün okuduğu kitaplar, Vol.XVIII, pp.127–56.90. On these points, see Lewis, 'History-writing and National Revival in Turkey', pp.219–22.91. M. Djellaleddin (C. Borzecki), Les turcs anciens et modernes (Constantinople: Librairie internationale, 1869), see especially pp.229–362.92. Kushner, The Rise of Turkish Nationalism, p.31f.93. See U. Heyd, Foundations of Turkish Nationalism: the Life and Teachings of Ziya Gökalp (London: Luzac, 1950).94. The Principles of Turkism, trans. R. Devereux (Leiden: Brill, 1968; written in 1923), p.40.95. ibid., p.115.96. For the full text see Ziya Gökalp Külliyatı I: Şiirler ve Halk Masalları [Complete Works of Ziya Gökalp I; Poems and Folktales], ed. F.A. Tansel (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1952), pp.78–83.97. On the other hand, in his history schoolbook, Ziya rejected associating the Turks with various ancient peoples on the grounds that there was no trustworthy information in support, and preferred to begin Turkish history with the first mention of Turkish tribes in Chinese sources: Türk Medeniyeti ta'rikhi [History of Turkish Civilization] (Istanbul: Matbaa-yi Âmire, 1341 AH = 1922), p.200f.98. S.S. Pasha, Van Ta'rikhi ve Kürtler hakkında Tetebbu`at [Studies about the History of Van and the Kurds] (published in Istanbul: Matbaa-yı Ebüzziya, in 1926, but evidently written much earlier), pp.10–13. Note that this work was republished with few changes in 1982: Van tarihi ve Kürt Türkler hakkında incelemeler [Studies about the History of Van and the Kurdish Turks (Ankara: Türk Kültürünü Araştırma Enstitüsü, 1982), pp.9–13.99. B. Atalay, Maraş Tarihi ve coğrafyası [History and Geography of Marash] (Istanbul: Matbaa-yi Âmire, 1920; written in 1914), pp.7–17. Republished in 1973 with the same title (Istanbul: Dizerkonca Matbaası), pp.8–24.100. M. Sadullah et al., Devre-i aliye [The Exalted Age] (Istanbul, 1918); non vidi: see Çıkar, Von der osmanischen dynastie zur türkischen Nation, pp.71–5.101. R. Nur, Türk tarikhi [Turkish History] (Istanbul: Matbaa-yi Âmire, 1914–24; in Ottoman Turkish). I refer to the pages of the modern edition, Türk tarihi (Istanbul: Toker yayınları, 1978–81).102. Ibid., Vol.I, pp.262–4; Hungarians and Finns appear here because the structure of their languages resembles that of Turkish, a fact that gave them a place in pan-Turanian ideology.103. Ibid., Vol.V, p..304f.104. Mesopotamia, Scythians: ibid., p.52; Medes: pp.81–3; Parthians: p.96.105. Ibid., Vol.VIII, pp.62–6.106. White race: ibid., Vol.XII, pp.310–14; Dravidians: Vol.VI, p.66.107. Ibid., Vol.XII, pp.159–66.108. Atatürkün okuduğu kitaplar, Vol.I, pp.187–374, one of the longest sections devoted to one work.109. Atatürk'ün Söylev ve Demeçleri [Speeches and Statements of Atatürk] (Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1989), Vol.I, p.288.110. Ibid., Vol.II, p.130.111. Toğan taught in Istanbul from 1927 to 1932. His lectures were partially published in lithograph in 1928, the full text appeared as Umumi Türk tarihine giriş [General Introduction to Turkish history] (Istanbul: İsmail Akgün Matbaası, 1946); see the introductory chapter, pp.8–31.