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Hindu Nationalist Conceptions of History: Constructing a Hindu–Muslim Dichotomy

2012; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 35; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/00856401.2011.642794

1479-0270

Lars Tore Flåten,

Anthropological Studies and Insights

Abstract In this article, I seek to examine some key mechanisms underlying the dichotomisation between Hindus and Muslims in Hindu nationalist history writing. Two arguments are central to this study. One is that the strict dichotomisation between Hindus and Muslims presupposes homogeneous categories. This is particularly clear if one examines how Hindu nationalist intellectuals made sense of ambiguities, of individuals and cultural traditions that did not fit directly into the categories, 'Hindus' and 'Muslims'. Moreover, I discuss the role of the so-called hidden 'Others'. I argue that these hidden 'Others' represent, in the form of alternative principles of grouping, the largest obstacle to the Hindu nationalist construction of a Hindu–Muslim dichotomy, both at the political level and within the field of history writing. Keywords: Hindu nationalismhistory writingessentialismclassificationambiguitiesdichotomy'Other' Notes 1 Prasenjit Duara, 'Historicizing National Identity, or Who Imagines What and When', in G. Eley and R.G. Suny (eds), Becoming National: A Reader (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), p.164. 2 On the term, 'hidden Others', see ibid. 3 Making India Hindu is the title of David Ludden's anthology; David Ludden (ed.), Making India Hindu: Religion, Community, and the Politics of Democracy in India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996). 4 The group of scholars I examine here is quite similar to what Mitsuhiro Kondo refers to as the 'Goel/Shourie group', which was also centred round the publishing house, Voice of India. See Mitsuhiro Kondo, 'Hindu Nationalists and Their Critique of Monotheism: The Relationship between Nation, Religion and Violence', in M. Hasan and N. Nakazato (eds), The Unfinished Agenda: Nation-Building in South Asia (NewDelhi: Manohar, 2001), pp.79–80. 5 The Marxist school of history writing has been influential in India and historians belonging to this school have often been among the most vocal critics of historians affiliated to the Hindu nationalist movement. Many of the Marxist historians have also occupied central positions in universities and associations such as the Indian History Congress. See, for example, Vinay Lal, The History of History: Politics and Scholarship in Modern India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003) for a good introduction to the topic. It is also important to underline that although the pro-temple scholars held their opponents to be Marxists, this was hardly the case. 6 For an overview of the textbooks issue, see Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne H. Rudolph, 'Rethinking Secularism: Genesis and Implications of the Textbook Controversy, 1977–79', in Pacific Affairs, Vol.LVI, no.1 (Spring 1983), pp.15–37; Marie Lall, 'Indian Education Policy under the NDA Government', in Katharine Adeney and Lawrence Saez (eds), Coalition Politics and Hindu Nationalism (New York: Routledge, 2005), pp.153–70; and Mushirul Hasan, 'The BJP's Intellectual Agenda: Textbooks and Imagined History', in South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies, Vol.XXV, no.3 (Dec. 2002), pp.187–209. See also Véronique Bénéï, Schooling Passions: Nation, History, and Language in Contemporary Western India (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2008). 7 Such an undertaking would have to take into account the many debates concerning Indian secularism, with particular focus on the way in which historical associations and universities are organised. It would also have to take into account scholars occupying middle positions, criticising both Hindu nationalism and secularism. See, for example, Ashis Nandy, Time Warps: The Insistent Politics of Silent and Evasive Pasts (Delhi: Permanent Black, 2002). 8 Organiser (21 Oct. 1990), p.1. Mulayam Singh Yadav was the chief minister of Uttar Pradesh. 9 Duara, 'Historicizing National Identity', p.164. 10 Organiser (21 Oct. 1990), p.2 11 Ibid., pp.1–4. 12 Amrita Basu, 'When Local Riots are Not Merely Local: Bringing the State Back in Bijnor, 1988–1992', in Partha Chatterjee (ed.), State and Politics in India (New Delhi: Oxford India Paperbacks, 1998), p.419. Paul Brass has put forth a similar argument. Brass writes that 'the main opposing force to ascendant Hindu nationalism, however, is not the alternative state ideologies, but the rise of intercaste conflict, especially in north India simultaneously with the rise of Hindu nationalism'. See Paul R. Brass, Theft of an Idol: Text and Context in the Representation of Collective Violence (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), p.280. 13 K.N. Panikkar, 'Culture as a Site of Struggle', in Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.XLIV, no.7 (2009), p.34. 14 Avril Powell, 'Perceptions of the South Asian Past: Ideology, Nationalism and School History Textbooks', in Nigel Crook (ed.), The Transmission of Knowledge in South Asia: Essays on Education, Religion, History, and Politics (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp.190–228. 15 Partha Chatterjee, 'History and the Nationalization of Hinduism', in V. Dalmia and H. von Stietencron (eds), Representing Hinduism: The Construction of Religious Traditions and National Identity (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1995), p.126. 16 Kondo, 'Hindu Nationalists and Their Critique of Monotheism', p.98. 17 Basu, 'When Local Riots are Not Merely Local', pp.390–435. 18 Ibid., p.421. 19 Mary Douglas, 'The Abominations of Leviticus', in W.A. Lessa and E.Z. Vogt (eds), Reader in Comparative Religion (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1979), pp.149–52. 20 Ibid. 21 Ibid. 22 See Devendra Swarup, 'How British Made Hinduism a Religion', in Manthan (June 1991), pp.113–7. Swarup argued that the very concept of religion was Western and was of no relevance in the Indian context. The terms 'Hindu civilisation' or 'Hindu culture' were better suited, as religion and culture could not be separated from each other or from Indian society in general. 23 Koenraad Elst, Ram Janmabhoomi vs. Babri Masjid: A Case Study in Hindu–Muslim Conflict (New Delhi: Voice of India, 1990), p.113; and Harsh Narain, Myths of Composite Culture and Equality of Religions (New Delhi: Voice of India, 1990), p.30. 24 R.P. Jain, 'Rama—The Beautiful Ideal of Hindu Dharma', in Organiser: Deepavali/Ramajanmabhoomi Special (29 Oct. 1989), p.34. 25 Narain, Myths of Composite Culture and Equality of Religions, p.30. Narain also emphasised that Buddhism and Jainism were indigenous traditions. 26 Sita Ram Goel, Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them, Vol.2, The Islamic Evidence (New Delhi: Voice of India, 2nd ed., 2000), p.395. 27 K.R. Malkani, The Politics of Ayodhya and Hindu–Muslim Relations (New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications, 1993), p.19. 28 Narain, Myths of Composite Culture and Equality of Religions, p.5. 29 Ibid., pp.5, 14, 64. 30 Jay Dubashi, The Road to Ayodhya (New Delhi: Voice of India, 1992), p.59. 31 Devendra Swarup, 'Editorial', in Manthan (June 1991), pp.3–4; and R.K. Mookerji, 'Hinduism—Bedrock of Nationalism', in Manthan (June 1991), p.63. 32 Swarup, 'Editorial', p.3. 33 Narain, Myths of Composite Culture and Equality of Religions, p.50. 34 Elst, Ram Janmabhoomi vs. Babri Masjid, p.113. 35 Malkani, The Politics of Ayodhya and Hindu–Muslim Relations, p.17. 36 Emphasis on dharma as a unifying factor for all the different Hindu sects was not a Hindu nationalist invention during the Ayodhya controversy. Dharma was also emphasised by several of the reform movements in the nineteenth century. 37 Sanatanist here points to more philosophical and dharmic traditions. 38 Swapan Dasgupta, 'Countdown to Rama', in Organiser: Deepavali/Ramajanmabhoomi Special (29 Oct. 1989), p.28. 39 Ibid., p.29, emphasis added. 40 Elst, Ram Janmabhoomi vs. Babri Masjid, p.127. 41 Narain, Myths of Composite Culture and Equality of Religions, p.40. 42 K.S. Lal, Indian Muslims: Who are They (New Delhi: Voice of India, 1990), pp.117–9. 43 Ibid. 44 S. Mukherji, 'A Controversy for Nothing', in Manthan (June 1991), p.120. The Aryan invasion theory was also commented upon in this debate. However, because of the magnitude of this issue, I have chosen not to include it in this discussion. 45 R. Thapar, H. Mukhia and B. Chandra, Communalism and the Writing of Indian History (New Delhi: People's Publishing House, 2nd ed., 1977). 46 Bipan Chandra et al., 'The Political Abuse of History', in V.C. Mishra and P. Singh (eds), Ram Janmabhoomi Babri Masjid: Historical Documents, Legal Opinions and Judgements (New Delhi: The Bar Council of India Trust, 1991), p.180. 47 Romila Thapar, 'Communalism and the Writing of Ancient Indian History', in R. Thapar, H. Mukhia and B. Chandra, Communalism and the Writing of Indian History (New Delhi: People's Publishing House, 2nd ed., 1977), p.15. 48 Elst, Ram Janmabhoomi vs. Babri Masjid, p.107. 49 Ibid., p.110. 50 Goel, Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them, Vol.2, p.421. 51 M.V. Kamath, 'Facing up to the Truth', in Organiser (27 Sept. 1992), p.4. 52 Swarup, 'Editorial', p.3. 53 Goel, Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them, Vol.2, p.35. 54 Ibid., p.35; and Lal, Indian Muslims: Who are They, p.5. 55 Sita Ram Goel, Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them, Vol.1, A Preliminary Survey (New Delhi: Voice of India, rev. and enlarged edition, 1998), p.66. 56 Ibid., p.41. 57 This inclusion has also been noted by Partha Chatterjee in his discussion of the classical Hindu past as distinguished from the later era of Muslim rule. See Chatterjee, 'History and the Nationalization of Hinduism', p.117. 58 Goel, Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them, Vol.2, pp.255–64; and Narain, Myths of Composite Culture and Equality of Religions, p.49. 59 Goel, Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them, Vol.2, p.262; and Elst, Ram Janmabhoomi vs Babri Masjid: A Case Study in Hindu–Muslim Conflict, p.43. 60 Harsh Narain, The Ayodhya Temple–Mosque Dispute: Focus on Muslim Sources (Delhi: Penman Publishers, 1993), p.1. 61 Swarup, 'Editorial', p.3; K.S. Lal, 'Ramajanmabhoomi—Some Issues', in Organiser: Deepavali/Ramajanmabhoomi Special (29 Oct. 1989), pp.2–3; Elst, Ram Janmabhoomi vs. Babri Masjid: A Case Study in Hindu–Muslim Conflict, pp.42–5; and Ram Swarup, 'A Need to Face the Truth', in Sita Ram Goel, Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them, Vol.1, A Preliminary Survey (New Delhi: Voice of India, rev. and enlarged edition, 1998), pp.33–40. 62 Goel, Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them, Vol.2, pp.345–74. 63 Narain, Myths of Composite Culture and Equality of Religions, p.11. 64 H. Mukhia, 'Medieval Indian History and the Communal Approach', in Communalism and the Writing of Indian History (New Delhi: People's Publishing House, 2nd ed., 1977), p.34. 65 Ibid. 66 Chandra et al., 'The Political Abuse of History', p.182. 67 Goel, Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them, Vol.2, p.249; and Elst, Ram Janmabhoomi vs. Babri Masjid: A Case Study in Hindu–Muslim Conflict, p.86. 68 Elst, Ram Janmabhoomi vs. Babri Masjid: A Case Study in Hindu–Muslim Conflict, p.86. 69 Goel, Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them, Vol.2, p.56. 70 Narain, The Ayodhya Temple–Mosque Dispute: Focus on Muslim Sources, p.66. 71 Goel, Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them, Vol.2, p.378. 72 Malkani, The Politics of Ayodhya and Hindu–Muslim Relations, p.82. 73 Narain, Myths of Composite Culture and Equality of Religions, p.69. 74 Ibid. 75 Ibid. 76 Goel, Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them, Vol.2, p.245. 77 Ibid. 78 Ibid. 79 Ibid. 80 Elst, Ram Janmabhoomi vs. Babri Masjid: A Case Study in Hindu–Muslim Conflict, p.76. 81 Ibid. 82 Ibid., p.78. 83 Bipan Chandra, 'Historians of Modern India and Communalism', in R. Thapar, H. Mukhia and B. Chandra, Communalism and the Writing of Indian History (New Delhi: People's Publishing House, 2nd ed., 1977), p.53. 84 Dubashi, The Road to Ayodhya, p.67. 85 Elst, Ram Janmabhoomi vs. Babri Masjid: A Case Study in Hindu–Muslim Conflict, p.89. 86 Ibid. 87 Narain, Myths of Composite Culture and Equality of Religions, p.21. 88 Ibid., pp.21–2. 89 Malkani, The Politics of Ayodhya and Hindu–Muslim Relations, pp.92–3; and Girilal Jain, 'Improving Hindu–Muslim Relations: A Symposium', in Manthan (Sept. 1990), p.27. 90 Malkani, The Politics of Ayodhya and Hindu–Muslim Relations, p.87. 91 Girilal Jain, ' Appendix 1: Girilal Jain on Hindu Rashtra', in Koenraad Elst (ed.), Ayodhya and After: Issues before Hindu Society (New Delhi: Voice of India, 1991) [http://voiceofdharma.org/books/ayodhya/apex1.htm, accessed 5 Sept. 2008]. 92 Lal, The History of History, p.110. 93 Stephen Reicher and Nick Hopkins, Self and Nation: Categorization, Contestation and Mobilization (London: Sage Publications, 2001), p.170 94 Sita Ram Goel, 'The Sins of Secular Historians and Politicians', in Organiser (1 Sept. 1991), pp.9–10 and Organiser (8 Sept. 1991), pp.9–10. 95 Goel, Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them, Vol.2, p.251. 96 This particular term was used by Elst in his Ram Janmabhoomi vs. Babri Masjid: A Case Study in Hindu–Muslim Conflict, p.85. 97 Narain, Myths of Composite Culture and Equality of Religions, p.6; and Elst, Ram Janmabhoomi vs. Babri Masjid: A Case Study in Hindu–Muslim Conflict, p.115. 98 Narain, The Ayodhya Temple–Mosque Dispute: Focus on Muslim Sources, p.2. 99 Elst, Ram Janmabhoomi vs. Babri Masjid: A Case Study in Hindu–Muslim Conflict, p.115. 100 Goel, Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them, Vol.2, p.61. 101 Ibid., p.252. A similar argument can be found in Elst, Ram Janmabhoomi vs. Babri Masjid: A Case Study in Hindu–Muslim Conflict, p.42. Elst argues that secularist historians refused to see 'Islam's true nature'. 102 See, for example, Elst, Ayodhya and After: Issues before Hindu Society, p.144; and Dubashi, The Road to Ayodhya, p.93. 103 Goel, Hindu Temples: What Happened to Them, Vol.2, pp.404–5. Goel also used the term 'Nehruvian science', to refer to JNU historians. See ibid., pp.62–3. 104 S. Dasgupta, 'Communal Revolt: Problem of Majority Alienation', The Times of India (29 Dec. 1990), p.10. 105 Gyanendra Pandey, 'Modes of History Writing: New Hindu History of Ayodhya', in Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXIX, no.25 (18 June 1994), pp.1523–8. 106 Ibid. 107 D. Gilmartin, 'Partition, Pakistan, and South Asian History: In Search of a Narrative', in The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol.LVII, no.4 (Nov. 1998), pp.1068–95. 108 As I pointed out earlier, the temple movement—operating with Hindu unity partly by constructing the Muslim 'Other'—was intimately linked with the Mandal issue, which Hindu nationalists believed would deepen divisions among Hindus. 109 Katherine Ewing cited in Tabir Kalan, 'Aspects of Religion, Tradition and Culture in 18th Century Northern India', in The Indian Historical Review, Vol.XXXI, nos. 1&2 (Jan. and July 2004), pp.107–33.