Food vs Biofuel
2007; Elsevier BV; Volume: 107; Issue: 11 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1016/j.jada.2007.09.014
ISSN1878-3570
Autores Tópico(s)Anaerobic Digestion and Biogas Production
ResumoWhen the price of food rises for the world’s economically privileged—including most Americans—we may take notice. We may grumble or even shift our buying patterns. However, for the 2.7 billion people around the world who live in extreme poverty, higher food costs can be catastrophic. Experts in global food production and consumption now are carefully watching rising prices for grains and oilseeds, which are ingredients for most processed foods and the feed components for poultry, livestock, and dairy, as well as the staples for the world’s poor who live on pennies per day. A new, powerful source of demand is emerging: millions of tons of grains and oilseeds are now going into the tanks of automobiles as ethanol and other biofuels. The jury is out on what the impacts will be on the world and its living things.This commodity conflict has been developing over the past several years. As rising gas prices and the contribution of emissions to global warming have settled into the fore of political concerns, there has been a renewed interest in an idea that originally took hold during the oil embargo of the 1970s: biofuel as an alternative to fossil fuel.Biofuels, a renewable energy source derived from recently living organisms or metabolic byproducts thereof (1Beard M. Global warming: What are biofuels?.The London Independent. 2005Google Scholar), are derived from crops: chiefly corn and soybeans in the United States and China; sugar cane in Brazil and India; sugar beets, wheat, and barley in Europe; and cassava in Asian and African countries. The majority of biofuels are produced primarily in the United States, Brazil, and Europe (95% of production), with the remaining 5% mostly coming from India, Canada, and China (2Blas J. UN food chief urges rethink on biofuels.Financial Times. 2007Google Scholar).In the United States, Congress acted first in 1974 to support corn-based ethanol as an alternative to imported oil, perhaps even with cleaner air benefits. Over the years, Congress approved both small and large subsidies to producers to facilitate production and spur demand for ethanol. Although ethanol plants dotted the rural countryside, their combined output didn’t make a dent in total energy needs, and dependence on imports from oil-rich nations increased (3Runge C.F. Senauer B. How biofuels could starve the poor.Foreign Aff. 2007Google Scholar). A key factor remained that ethanol wasn’t economically competitive with gasoline. However, when world oil prices began to climb and eventually to peak in recent months, ethanol suddenly appeared to be viable. Given a climate where many nations want to both support their farmers and spend their currencies at home, biofuels are making more than a comeback. Corn-based ethanol is rushing ahead in the United States and other biofuels are gaining momentum worldwide: international ethanol production increased 165%, from 4.6 billion to 12.2 billion gallons, in the span between 2000 and 2005 (4Brown L. How food and fuel compete for land.The Globalist. 2006Google Scholar).Farmers have been the leading proponents for ethanol in the United States, and they have watched the run-up in oil prices with a clear understanding of new marketplace demands, shifting rotations and crops themselves to serve growing demand. Their shifts, however, have become a major cause for concern among those working to eradicate world hunger, uneasy that so much of the available arable land is being diverted to crops destined for biofuel production. Economists, government agencies, international humanitarian organizations, think tanks, and representatives of the agribusiness community have led the discussions, but biofuels should be an issue of interest to registered dietitians (RDs) as well as other food and nutrition professionals. Indeed, RDs can speak uniquely about the nutrient value of food products, as well as about basic human needs for adequate, satisfying, and healthful diets.A Look at the DetailsAt the same time that international humanitarian organizations and government agencies are conceptualizing, strategizing, and publishing strategies to improve food security and combat world hunger (5Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsEradicating Hunger: Moving from Pilot Projects to National Programmes to Meet the World Food Summit Goal.2004Google Scholar, 6U.S. Agency for International DevelopmentWorld Food Summit: Five Years Later.2002Google Scholar), the biofuels industry has been booming, with more governments offering incentives for production, investors willing to put up the cash to build more distilleries, and, correspondingly, more crops diverted to use in fuel production.The 2004 surge in oil prices to $40/barrel (4Brown L. How food and fuel compete for land.The Globalist. 2006Google Scholar), which by 2006 was at $60 to $100/barrel (7von Braun J. Pachauri R.K. The Promises and Challenges of Biofuels for the Poor in Developing Countries. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC2006Google Scholar), is largely responsible for everyone’s interest. With the US Energy Information Administration’s estimates of a 71% increase in global energy consumption between 2003 and 2030 (3Runge C.F. Senauer B. How biofuels could starve the poor.Foreign Aff. 2007Google Scholar), it is no surprise that an alternative would generate activity and draw capital.Mandate for ChangeIn the 2007 State of the Union Address, President Bush urged for a fivefold increase in the current production of renewable fuels, up to 35 billion gallons each year, by 2017 (3Runge C.F. Senauer B. How biofuels could starve the poor.Foreign Aff. 2007Google Scholar)—up from the 11.4 billion gallons projected in 2008. In 2006—when the US ethanol production had increased by 1 billion gallons over the previous year’s totals (8Westcott P.C. Ethanol Expansion in the United States: How will the Agricultural Sector Adjust?. US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Washington, DC2007Google Scholar)—the country had 73 ethanol refineries under construction to add to the 110 that were already operational (9Johnson R.S. Runge C.F. The New World of Biofuels. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington, DC2007Google Scholar).This exponential growth in biofuel production facilities is not limited to the United States. Current mandates for ethanol production in Brazil expect 2% biodiesel in all diesel fuel by 2008 and an increase to 5% by 2013 (3Runge C.F. Senauer B. How biofuels could starve the poor.Foreign Aff. 2007Google Scholar). The European Union expects a 5.75% biofuel content by 2010 (7von Braun J. Pachauri R.K. The Promises and Challenges of Biofuels for the Poor in Developing Countries. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC2006Google Scholar). By the end of 2005, India was planning to increase its nation’s facilities from 10 to 30 (4Brown L. How food and fuel compete for land.The Globalist. 2006Google Scholar) and nine states are required to use 5% ethanol blend (7von Braun J. Pachauri R.K. The Promises and Challenges of Biofuels for the Poor in Developing Countries. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC2006Google Scholar). China, where five provinces have a 10% ethanol blend mandate (7von Braun J. Pachauri R.K. The Promises and Challenges of Biofuels for the Poor in Developing Countries. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC2006Google Scholar), is expected to have four new plants up and running (4Brown L. How food and fuel compete for land.The Globalist. 2006Google Scholar); meanwhile, Malaysia has approved 32 refineries (10Brown L. Supermarkets and service stations now competing for grain. Available at: http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2006/Update55.htm. Accessed August 20, 2007.Google Scholar), Indonesia has begun to invest substantially in production facilities (10Brown L. Supermarkets and service stations now competing for grain. Available at: http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2006/Update55.htm. Accessed August 20, 2007.Google Scholar), and tropical forest areas in Southeast Asia are being razed to make room for oil palms that will be converted to biofuel (3Runge C.F. Senauer B. How biofuels could starve the poor.Foreign Aff. 2007Google Scholar).Taxing the SupplyThough there are some advocates who believe that the crops designated for biofuel production do not cut into the food supply, arguing that there is enough acreage and yield for crops for both food and fuel, the numbers, both real and estimated, are striking nonetheless. The US Department of Agriculture, for example, had estimated that of the 20 million tons of grain produced worldwide in 2006, 14 million tons would be marked for use in biofuel production (10Brown L. Supermarkets and service stations now competing for grain. Available at: http://www.earth-policy.org/Updates/2006/Update55.htm. Accessed August 20, 2007.Google Scholar) and by the 2010-2011 marketing year, ethanol corn is expected to produce 4 billion bushels a year (8Westcott P.C. Ethanol Expansion in the United States: How will the Agricultural Sector Adjust?. US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Washington, DC2007Google Scholar). If President Bush’s directive for 35 billion barrels of renewable energy by 2017 were to be carried out today, 107% of the current corn crop would have to be dedicated to the type of corn used in fuel production (11Meyers M. Corn: Fuel or food?.Minneapolis Star-Tribune. 2007Google Scholar), which is not directly digestible by humans (in addition to ethanol, it is used for animal feed or milled into high-fructose corn syrup).Some industry-watchers believe “ethanol plants will burn up to half of US domestic corn supplies within a few years” and that the corn carryover or inventory in 2007 will be at its lowest in 12 years (3Runge C.F. Senauer B. How biofuels could starve the poor.Foreign Aff. 2007Google Scholar)—meaning that US corn stocks will be at bin bottoms. In addition, as ethanol demand increases, more farmers are planting corn used in ethanol at the expense of acreage for other crops, which will draw down stock levels for those commodities as well. And corn is not the only fuelstock for biofuels. Iowa economists project 200 million bushels of soybeans, amounting to 40% of the state’s annual harvest, being converted to 280 million gallons of biodiesel within a few years (4Brown L. How food and fuel compete for land.The Globalist. 2006Google Scholar).Just how much fuel is being produced from these crops? Total global ethanol production was 9.66 billion gallons in 2005, with Brazilian sugar cane–based ethanol contributing 45.2% and 44.5% coming from corn-based ethanol in the United States (3Runge C.F. Senauer B. How biofuels could starve the poor.Foreign Aff. 2007Google Scholar). Among the 1.6 billion gallons of biofuel produced in Europe, 858 million gallons were vegetable oil–based biodiesel and 718 million gallons were ethanol (10). And according to estimates for 2006, there was a substantial market for it: US ethanol consumption was expected to reach more than 6 billion gallons and biodiesel, 250 million gallons (3Runge C.F. Senauer B. How biofuels could starve the poor.Foreign Aff. 2007Google Scholar).Impact of Crop DiversionProponents of biofuels argue that the percentage of grain crops harvested for fuel production is negligible compared with yields. Jeffrey Zeiger, executive director of the nonprofit organization Alternative Fuels Institute, for example, argues, “Based on the numbers and the amount of ethanol we’re producing, there’s not a negative implication for corn destined for the rest of the world” (11Meyers M. Corn: Fuel or food?.Minneapolis Star-Tribune. 2007Google Scholar). However, such a conclusion does not account for the extent that hungry families could be helped if the land was used for crops that were destined for human consumption. For example, though the 32 million tons of corn converted to fuel in 2004 only amounted to 12% of the total US supply, 32 million tons of corn could feed 100 million people when calculating at average worldwide consumption levels (4Brown L. How food and fuel compete for land.The Globalist. 2006Google Scholar). Furthermore, if the grain needed to fill a 25-gallon sport utility vehicle tank (that is, 450 lb) were instead used for food, that grain would provide one person enough calories for a year (3Runge C.F. Senauer B. How biofuels could starve the poor.Foreign Aff. 2007Google Scholar, 4Brown L. How food and fuel compete for land.The Globalist. 2006Google Scholar); likewise, the grain needed for biweekly fill-ups could feed 26 (10). Considering that, according to United Nations (UN) Rapporteur on the Right to Food, Jean Ziegler, 854 million people worldwide suffer from hunger (12Nebehay S. Biofuels could lead to mass hunger deaths Reuters.2007Google Scholar), concerns regarding how much arable land is diverted to crops for fuel are increasing.Though much of the impact of crop diversion to biofuels on world hunger remains to be seen, Mexico has already felt the effects of rising US corn prices. In 2006, after the price of US corn, which contributes to 80% of Mexico’s corn imports, had jumped $1.40 in only three-plus months, the price of tortillas per kilogram suddenly doubled as speculation and hording became rampant (3Runge C.F. Senauer B. How biofuels could starve the poor.Foreign Aff. 2007Google Scholar, 9Johnson R.S. Runge C.F. The New World of Biofuels. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington, DC2007Google Scholar). Though white corn is used in tortilla production, the market price was driven up when Mexican companies that used yellow corn—mostly processed foods and animal feed manufacturers—started buying up inventory of the white, homegrown, cheaper variety (3Runge C.F. Senauer B. How biofuels could starve the poor.Foreign Aff. 2007Google Scholar). Mexico’s president was forced to intervene and set limits on corn prices (9Johnson R.S. Runge C.F. The New World of Biofuels. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington, DC2007Google Scholar).What happened in Mexico has potential to happen throughout the world, as the United States exports up to 70% of the world’s corn (8Westcott P.C. Ethanol Expansion in the United States: How will the Agricultural Sector Adjust?. US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Washington, DC2007Google Scholar). The negative effects of crop diversion to biofuels—the imposition on the world food supply that begins with the grain availability and prices and ultimately affects the secondary production markets that use the grains—is expected to be felt most strongly in poorer nations with higher percentages of poverty. In Mexico, where 107 million live in poverty, out-of-control price increases on foods that provide the bulk of calories could be devastating (3Runge C.F. Senauer B. How biofuels could starve the poor.Foreign Aff. 2007Google Scholar, 9Johnson R.S. Runge C.F. The New World of Biofuels. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington, DC2007Google Scholar).The expected increases in cassava prices by 2010 and 2020 are a major cause for concern because it is a principal food item in poverty-stricken communities in Latin America and Asia (9Johnson R.S. Runge C.F. The New World of Biofuels. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Washington, DC2007Google Scholar) and is the primary staple for more than 200 million poor people living in sub-Saharan Africa (1Beard M. Global warming: What are biofuels?.The London Independent. 2005Google Scholar). A high-starch tuber, cassava is the chief option for people in tropical nations who can’t afford other foods (3Runge C.F. Senauer B. How biofuels could starve the poor.Foreign Aff. 2007Google Scholar).World Bank economists have published several studies suggesting that the world population living in poverty experiences a decline in energy consumption by approximately one-half of a percentage point when all major food staples are experiencing a price increase of even 1% (3Runge C.F. Senauer B. How biofuels could starve the poor.Foreign Aff. 2007Google Scholar). As the poorest among the world population spend approximately 50% to 80% of their household income on food (3Runge C.F. Senauer B. How biofuels could starve the poor.Foreign Aff. 2007Google Scholar), any price increase can negatively affect food security. Yet, others have argued that as food scarcity is primarily the result of poverty, food security is not helped by lowering prices (13Worldwatch Institute. Biofuels could benefit world’s undernourished [press release]. Available at: http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5300. Accessed August 15, 2007.Google Scholar), as it can slow the economy within poorer rural communities (5Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsEradicating Hunger: Moving from Pilot Projects to National Programmes to Meet the World Food Summit Goal.2004Google Scholar).The Biofuels DebateMany individuals and groups are calling for a global rethinking of how best to proceed with biofuel production in light of its potential impact on the world’s food supply and, in turn, hunger. It is noteworthy, however, that there is disagreement even among the ranks within given sectors.Agribusiness companies, for example, are likely expected to be entirely in favor of crop use in biofuel production, as they stand to profit greatly from it. But in May, Warren Staley, former chief executive officer and chairman of Cargill Inc, publicly questioned that subsidies are given for fuel production instead of food production (14ADMCargill square off on ethanol-vs-food debate Reuters.2007Google Scholar). “We have to look at the hierarchy of value for agricultural land use,” Staley said. “Food first, then feed, and last fuel. Today we are providing subsidy to fuel uses while often erecting barriers to new food and feed technologies” (14ADMCargill square off on ethanol-vs-food debate Reuters.2007Google Scholar).The former chairman of Archer Daniels Midland, G. Allen Andreas, was nonplussed by Staley’s comments: “I think any knowledgeable person in today’s world would recognize the fact that the reason we’ve got malnutrition and hunger is not because we’re turning food into fuel…We’ve got hundreds of millions of acres of land in Brazil that are suitable for arable development into farmland that still have not been cultivated without any infringement on the environment. There’s plenty of capacity to make food” (14ADMCargill square off on ethanol-vs-food debate Reuters.2007Google Scholar).But Cargill has remained firm in its argument; as the US government was reviewing its goals for renewable fuel in August, Cargill chief financial officer Bill Veazey stated to the press, “There needs to be escape mechanisms [regarding mandates about biofuel production] so that you don’t distort the food markets” by way of soaring demand for crops (15Cameronin D. Cargill warns of risks from eco-fuel drive.Financial Times. 2007Google Scholar).There is also variation in opinion at the UN. Whereas Jean Ziegler has argued that “There is a great danger for the right to food by the development of biofuels,” and “[The price] will be paid perhaps by hundreds of thousands of people who will die from hunger” (5Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsEradicating Hunger: Moving from Pilot Projects to National Programmes to Meet the World Food Summit Goal.2004Google Scholar), a senior official at the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Gustavo Best, believes that biofuels can have a positive impact by boosting food production in poorer nations (12Nebehay S. Biofuels could lead to mass hunger deaths Reuters.2007Google Scholar).There are many, however, who believe that fuel and food crops can coexist without one being sacrificed or favored over the other. However, success of this equilibrium depends on international policy. (A policy that proposes a target ethanol production goal while providing for affordable and abundant food, H.Con.Res.25, has already been proposed in the United States by the Chair of the House Committee on Agriculture, Rep. Collin Peterson [D-MN] [16Costello H. Distilling the facts in the “Food for Fuel” debate.HEN Newsletter. 2007Google Scholar].)In a report by Joachim von Braun, director general of the International Food Policy Research Institute, and R. K. Pachauri, director general of the Energy and Resources Institute in New Delhi, India, the authors present the argument that increased food insecurity is not a foregone conclusion of energy crop production (7von Braun J. Pachauri R.K. The Promises and Challenges of Biofuels for the Poor in Developing Countries. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC2006Google Scholar). They maintain that effective use of arable land, such as rotating crops, reserving favorable lands for food crops, and increasing biofuel production in rural and developing countries are worthwhile means for achieving a sustainable balance.Jacques Diouf, FAO director general, argues that international policies that address barriers to ethanol imports, establishment of environmental bioenergy standards, and microcredits for farmers in developing countries must be crafted and implemented. “Such measures would allow developing countries—which generally have ecosystems and climates more suited to biomass production than industrialised nations and often have ample reserves of land and labour—to use their competitive advantage,” Diouf has told the press, adding that there is “huge potential to reduce hunger and poverty” by moving ethanol crop production to the poorer nations (2Blas J. UN food chief urges rethink on biofuels.Financial Times. 2007Google Scholar).Finding ResolutionThough there is great concern about the ultimate impact of biofuel production on hunger among the world’s poorest, the major increase in biofuels does have the potential to benefit the world’s population living in poverty: on an individual level, many of the world’s poor are peasant and subsistence farmers who could profit from the growing industry; on a national level, purchasing biofuel from local farmers abates the dependence on imported oil (approximately 81% of the world’s poorest nations are net importers of oil) (13Worldwatch Institute. Biofuels could benefit world’s undernourished [press release]. Available at: http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5300. Accessed August 15, 2007.Google Scholar). Although it is not possible for US biofuel production to benefit most international players—most ethanol imports entering the United States must pay a tariff of 54 cents per gallon (ethanol prices are cheaper in other countries, including Brazil) (3Runge C.F. Senauer B. How biofuels could starve the poor.Foreign Aff. 2007Google Scholar)—farmers on arable land in developing nations could ultimately enrich their income if they were to enter the market as suppliers as the industry expanded in their countries. However, the likelihood of this result is questionable, as “the history of industrial demand for agricultural crops in these countries suggests that large producers will be the main beneficiaries. The likely result of a boom in cassava-based ethanol production is that an increasing number of poor people will struggle even more to feed themselves” (3Runge C.F. Senauer B. How biofuels could starve the poor.Foreign Aff. 2007Google Scholar).Furthermore, subsistence farmers are particularly vulnerable to market forces, as they are “highly dependent on markets, but engage in disadvantageous monetized exchanges through selling food when it is most plentiful and cheapest, and buying when it is scarce and expensive” (5Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsEradicating Hunger: Moving from Pilot Projects to National Programmes to Meet the World Food Summit Goal.2004Google Scholar).However, according to Christopher Flavin, director of the Worldwatch Institute, “Today’s higher prices may allow [farmers in some of the poorest nations] to sell their crops at a decent price, but major agricultural reforms will be needed to ensure that the increased benefits go to the world’s 800 million undernourished people, most of whom live in rural areas” (13Worldwatch Institute. Biofuels could benefit world’s undernourished [press release]. Available at: http://www.worldwatch.org/node/5300. Accessed August 15, 2007.Google Scholar).Assistance for FarmersSupported by Diouf, microcredits—small loans granted to poor and low-income persons without collateral, except their promise to pay it back, to help them embark on new enterprises and create jobs—have been batted around as a potential way to help rural and subsistence farmers in poorer nations to enter the biofuels market. In granting loans to individuals who are largely excluded from the privileges afforded by traditional banking systems, the microcredit system has had “proven results as one of the most effective and sustainable tools for eradicating world poverty” (17Poverty, Microcredits, and Development: Documents. Forum Barcelona 2004. Available at: http://www.barcelona2004.org/eng/banco_del_conocimiento/documentos/ficha.cfm?IdDoc=1523. Accessed August 15, 2007.Google Scholar). Because, as argued by Javier Pérez de la Vega, coordinator of the FAO’s Decentralised Cooperation Programme, bolstering the livestock and agricultural sectors is an essential approach to reducing poverty by promoting self-sufficiency, application of microcredits to individuals in poverty looking to enter the biofuels market holds much promise as a solution (17Poverty, Microcredits, and Development: Documents. Forum Barcelona 2004. Available at: http://www.barcelona2004.org/eng/banco_del_conocimiento/documentos/ficha.cfm?IdDoc=1523. Accessed August 15, 2007.Google Scholar). Furthermore, as market influence largely lies beyond the power of governance within small villages, self-reliance is a more effective component to emphasize initially, rather than dependence on finance and markets (5Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsEradicating Hunger: Moving from Pilot Projects to National Programmes to Meet the World Food Summit Goal.2004Google Scholar).The benefits of increasing farming production do not end at the farmer’s piggy bank. Several small-scale farming programs have shown that in addition to increasing incomes and bettering household food security, when production is augmented, the community thrives (small-scale farmers spend money locally, contributing to local economic development) (5Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsEradicating Hunger: Moving from Pilot Projects to National Programmes to Meet the World Food Summit Goal.2004Google Scholar).However, the increasing demand for energy and biofuel crops does not automatically mean that small-scale farmers and others in need will benefit. In fact, awareness of the opportunities in this growing industry is low in developing countries (7von Braun J. Pachauri R.K. The Promises and Challenges of Biofuels for the Poor in Developing Countries. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC2006Google Scholar). Pérez de la Vega does caution that economic and market growth are insufficient as a sole means for eradicating poverty, noting that the problem is mostly one of policy, as not enough is invested in agriculture (18Javier Pérez de la Vega: Economic growth does not resolve the problem of poverty [press release]. Forum Barcelona 2004. Available at: http://www.barcelona2004.org/eng/actualidad/noticias/html/f046494.htm. Accessed August 20, 2007.Google Scholar). As noted in a FAO report, the governments of countries with the largest incidence of hunger have the worst track record when it comes to agricultural expenditures matching its economic importance, declining 48% between 1990 and 1999 (19FAO. Towards the Summit Commitments: Acting to Combat Hunger. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y7352e/y7352e05.htm. Accessed August 20, 2007.Google Scholar). The private sector has had a poor showing in international agricultural assistance, with foreign sponsors largely bypassing such aid in favor of other investments or backing the industry in nations with lesser need (19FAO. Towards the Summit Commitments: Acting to Combat Hunger. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y7352e/y7352e05.htm. Accessed August 20, 2007.Google Scholar). This underscores why microcredits—as well as sharing information and technology related to biofuel development—are so vital for poorer individuals in developing countries who want to profit from the emerging biofuels market.An Alternative to the AlternativeAlthough the biofuel industry has meant a thriving corn industry in the United States, some are predicting that even with so much financial backing, this success will wane. For instance, if petroleum oil prices drop, “producing ethanol would no longer be profitable unless corn sold for less than $2 a bushel, and that would spell a return to the bad old days of low prices for U.S. farmers” (3Runge C.F. Senauer B. How biofuels could starve the poor.Foreign Aff. 2007Google Scholar). Plus, with some groups now arguing that biofuels, in their current composition, do harm the environment, perhaps more so than the fossil fuels they have been mandated to replace (8Westcott P.C. Ethanol Expansion in the United States: How will the Agricultural Sector Adjust?. US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Washington, DC2007Google Scholar, 20Biofuels: More harm than good?2007Google Scholar), the recent push toward a greener environment might lead to calls for change.An alternative—one that also addresses concerns about the scarcity and costs of viable food crops—h
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