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Unintended Impacts and the Gendered Consequences of Peacekeeping Economies in Liberia

2013; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 20; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/13533312.2013.761828

1743-906X

Kwesi Aning, Fiifi Edu-Afful,

Global Peace and Security Dynamics

Abstract Despite increased international attention to managing the potential impacts of peacekeeping on host countries, unintended consequences continue to emerge. This article focuses particularly on the alternative economies that peacekeeping operations generate and the differential economic impacts on individuals who come into contact with peacekeepers. Based on empirical evidence derived from fieldwork in Liberia, the article highlights the everyday lives of women whose livelihoods have been affected by the presence of peacekeeping missions. It also discusses how such economies adjust during the peacekeeping drawdown phase, and explores the dynamics that such economies have on specific segments of the Liberian population. The argument is that, while peacekeeping economies are critical in stimulating the local economy and providing livelihoods during and in the immediate aftermath of war, they have negative unintended impacts that need mitigation. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Funding for this research was provided by The Research Council of Norway, Project Number 207757/H30 under the project 'Peacekeeping, Poverty and Development: towards an understanding of the gendered peacekeeping economies in the DRC, Sudan and Liberia'. We are grateful to anonymous referees for their suggestions, and to Kathleen Jennings of the FAFO Institute for Applied International Studies, Norway who read the original draft and made useful comments. Finally, we thank Vivian Bruce-Tettey who helped with introductions and various kinds of assistance in Liberia, and colleagues at the Faculty of Academic Affairs and Research, Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre, for their critical inputs. Notes Elisabeth Rehn and Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, Women, War and Peace: The Independent Experts' Assessment on the Impact of Armed Conflict on Women and Women's Role in Peace-Building, New York: UNIFEM, 2002, pp.33–45; Kathleen Jennings 'The Political Economy of DDR in Liberia: A Gendered Critique', paper at the International Studies Association Annual Conference, San Francisco CA, 26–29 Mar. 2008; Jennings, 'Protecting Whom?: Approaches to Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in UN Peacekeeping Operations', Oslo: FAFO, 2008, pp.9–64. Kathleen Jennings and Vesna Nikolić-Ristanović, 'UN Peacekeeping Economies and Local Sex Industries: Connections and Implications', working paper 17, Brighton: MICROCON, 2009, pp.1–33. Ibid., p.4. Kwesi Aning, 'The Unintended Consequences of Peace Support Operations for Troops-Contributing Countries in West Africa: The Case of Ghana', in Ramesh Thakur Chiyuki Aoi and Cedric de Coning (eds), Unintended Consequences of Peacekeeping Operations, Tokyo: UN University Press, 2007, pp.133–55; Aning, 'Africa's Security in the New Millennium: State or Mercenary Induced Stability?', Global Society: Journal of Interdisciplinary International Relations, Vol.15, No.2, 2001, pp.149–71; Aning, Thomas Jaye and Samuel Atuobi, 'The Role of Private Military Companies in US–Africa Policy', Review of African Political Economy, Vol.35, No.118, 2008, pp.613–28. See Michael Carnahan, William Durch and Scott Gilmore, 'Economic Impact of Peacekeeping: Final Report', UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations, 2006 (at: www.un.org/Depts/dpko/lessons). Errol Miller, 'Gender, Power and Politics: An Alternative Perspective', in Dan Smith and Inger Skjelsbaek (eds), Gender, Peace and Conflict, Oslo: Sage, 2001, pp.80–103. Tubmanburg is comparatively well-endowed with natural resources and about 70 per cent of its workforce is engaged in agriculture, whereas Monrovia is the most populous town endowed with commercial business and government jobs. In all eight security guards, six drivers, four cooks, six waitresses, six receptionists, ten cleaners, ten petty traders and 16 government workers and employees of national and international non-governmental organizations were interviewed. Military officers that served under ECOMOG, UN civilian police, country team staff, military peacekeepers and UNMIL gender focal points were also interviewed. The criteria included conflict experience or participation and Liberians employed by ECOMOG, UNOMIL and UNMIL. On the Liberian conflict see Jeremy Levitt, The Evolution of Deadly Conflict in Liberia: From 'Paternaltarianism' to State Collapse, Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2005, pp.205–42; Adekeye Adebajo, Liberia's Civil War: Nigeria, ECOMOG and Regional Security in West Africa, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002, pp.31–88. The UN bears the primary responsibility of ensuring international peace and security, but the sub-regional group, ECOWAS, took the initiative to deploy troops to Liberia as a sub-regional operation. Co-deployment occurred when the UN collaborated in deploying peacekeepers. On ECOWAS decisions, see Aning, Emma Birikorang and Thomas Jaye, Compendium of ECOWAS Peace and Security Decisions: Protocols, Declarations and Peace Agreements, Accra: Combert Impressions, 2010, pp.207–68. Festus Boahen Aboagye, ECOMOG, A Sub-Regional Experience in Conflict Resolution, Management and Peacekeeping in Liberia, Accra: Sedco Publishing, 1999, p.62. On the ECOWAS role in Liberia, see Aning, 'Managing Regional Security in West Africa: ECOWAS, ECOMOG and Liberia', working paper, Copenhagen: Centre for Development Research, 1994. Namely National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL), Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD), Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL) [1996–2003] and United Movement for Democracy and Liberation in Liberia (ULIMO) [1989–96]. See inter alia, Chiyuki Aoi, Legitimacy and the Use of Armed Force: Stability Missions in the Post-Cold War Era, New York: Routledge, 2011, pp.22–41; Adebajo (see n.10 above), pp.41–131. Festus Boahen Aboagye and Alhaji Mohammed Sirjoh Bah, A Tortuous Road to Peace: The Dynamics of Regional, UN and International Humanitarian Interventions in Liberia, Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies, 2005, pp.1–20. Davis J. Francis, Uniting Africa: Building Regional Peace and Security Systems, Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005, pp.1–12. See 'ECOWAS Decision A/DEC.2/11/90 Relating to the Adoption of An ECOWAS Peace Plan for Liberia and the Entire West African Sub-Region', in Aning Birikorang and Jaye (see n.12 above), pp.212–13. Interview by author with Deputy Director, Kofi Annan Institute for Conflict Transformation, Monrovia, 18 Aug. 2011. According to this respondent, Nigeria, Côte d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso were complicit in providing weapons, training and money to the warring factions. Christopher Tuck, 'Every Car or Moving Object Gone: The ECOMOG Intervention in Liberia', African Studies Quarterly, Vol.4, No.1, 2000, pp.1–16. Interview by author with Director of Legal Services, Ghana Armed Forces, San Remo, Italy, 8 Oct. 2011. Ibid. By Security Council Resolution 866 of 1993, UNOMIL was mandated to ECOMOG in the implementation and execution of the terms of the Cotonou Peace Agreement. Aboagye and Bah (see n.17 above) pp.115–17. Interview by author with former UNMIL Military Chief of Operations, San Remo, Italy, 7 Oct. 2011. Max Ahmadu Sesay, 'Civil War and Collective Intervention in Liberia', Review of African Political Economy, Vol.23, No.67, 1996, pp.35–52. UN, 'The United Nations and the Situation in Liberia', Department of Public Information, 2011, p.40. Interview by author with cleaner, Tubmanburg, 13 Aug. 2011. Informal group discussion, Tubmanburg, 13 Aug. 2011. Interview by author with Nigerian military officer, Tubmanburg, 13 Aug. 2011. Interview by author with Deputy Minister of Labour, Monrovia, 18 Aug. 2011. Economy Watch, Inflation (Average Consumer Price Change per cent) for Liberia, 2012 (at: web.economywatch.com/economicstatistics/Liberia/Inflation_Average_Consumer_Price_Change_Percentage/). Deputy Minister (see n.32 above). Interview by author with 'EXSECON' security guard, Monrovia, 11 Aug. 2011. Interview by author with Executive Director, Forum for the Rights of Women, Monrovia, 19 Aug. 2011. Interview by author with Secretary, UN County Support Team, Tubmanburg, 19 Aug. 2011. Ibid. Ibid. Interview by author with cleaner/ cook, Monrovia, 10 Aug. 2011. Wilson Tarpeh, 'Speech Delivered for the Haywood Mission Institute Graduation', The News (Monrovia), 4 Aug. 2011, p.7. Informal group discussion, Ministry of Gender & Development, Monrovia, 10 Aug. 2011. Interview by author with journalist, UNMIL Radio, Monrovia, 23 Aug. 2011. UN Secretary-General's Bulletin, 'Special Measures for Protection from Sexual Exploitation and Abuse', UN doc., ST/SGB/2003/13, 2003. Interview by author with Chief of Session, Women Empowerment Division, Ministry of Gender & Development, Monrovia, 14 Aug. 2011. Ibid. UNMIL, 'Sexual and Gender-Based Violence in Liberia', UNMIL Fact-Sheet, Monrovia, Aug. 2010. Aning, 'Ghana, Liberia and ECOWAS: An Analysis of Ghana's Policies in Liberia', Liberian Studies Journal, Vol. 21, No.2, 1996; Aboagye and Bah (see n.17 above) p.203. Informal group discussion (see n.30 above). Veronika Fuest, 'This is the Time to get in Front: Changing Roles and Opportunities for Women in Liberia', African Affairs, Vol.107, No.427, 2008, pp.201–24. Interview by author with cleaner/ cook, Monrovia, 10 Aug. 2011. Interview by author with 'SEGAL' security guard, Monrovia, 11 Aug. 2011. Interview by author with petty trader, Tubmanburg, 13 Aug. 2011. Ibid. Interview by author with bar attendant, Tubmanburg, 13 Aug. 2011. Interview by author with receptionist, TGH Apartments, Monrovia, 20 Aug. 2011. Interview by author with cook, Monrovia, 16 Aug. 2011. Ibid. There are several 'recommended' and 'non-recommended' UN compounds in Liberia. The number of locals working in these compounds is not commensurate with the number of peacekeepers resident. Interview by author with social worker, Monrovia, 17 Aug. 2011. Interview by author with cook, Monrovia, 16 Aug. 2011. Ibid. Interview by author with businesswoman, Monrovia, 16 Aug. 2011. Interview by author with gender adviser, UNMIL, Monrovia, 18 Aug. 2011. Former UNMIL Military Chief of Operations (see n.26 above). Goran Hyden, No Shortcuts to Progress: African Development Management in Perspective, London: Heinemann, 1983, p.8. Informal group discussion (see n.42 above). Ibid. Ibid. Aning, 'Women and Civil Conflict: Liberia and Sierra Leone', African Journal of International Affairs, Vol.1, No.4, 1998, pp.46–58. Interview by author with mechanic/driver, Monrovia, 18 Aug. 2011. Interview by author with gender adviser, UNMIL, Monrovia, 18 Aug. 2011. Richard Caplan, 'Managing Transition: Exit Strategies and Peace Consolidation', in Caty Clement and Adam C. Smith (eds), Managing Complexities: Political and Managerial Challenges in United Nations Peace Operations, New York: International Peace Institute, 2009, pp.36–40. Interview by author with secretary, County Support Team, Tubmanburg, 13 Aug. 2011. Central Bank of Liberia, Annual Report 2011, 2012 (at: www.cbl.org.lr/doc/annualreports/annualreport2011.pdf). Deputy Minister (see n.32 above). Unemployment and under-employment remains one of the most knotty problems facing Liberia. According to the Deputy Minister (see n.32 above) reliable employment figures are unavailable.