Transatlantic Craft Migrations and Transnational Spaces: Belgian Window Glass Workers in America, 1880–1920
2004; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 45; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/002365604200026216
ISSN1469-9702
Autores Tópico(s)Migration and Labor Dynamics
ResumoClick to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes Ken Fones‐Wolf teaches history at West Virginia University. Correspondence to: History Department, West Virginia University, 312 Park St., Morgantown, WV 26505 USA. Email: kfoneswo@wvu.edu For the sinking of La Bourgogne and the harrowing story of the lone glassworker survivor, Ernest Delmotte, see National Glass Budget, 16 July 1898, 2; 1 October 1898, 1; Commoner and Glassworker, 9 July 1898, 1, and 20 August 1898, 2. Hoerder Hoerder Dirk Cultures in Contact: World Migrations in the Second Millenium. Durham: Duke University Press 2002 [Google Scholar], Cultures in Contact, 344–45. See also Hoerder, Labor Migration in the Atlantic Economies Hoerder Dirk Labor Migration in the Atlantic Economies: The European and North American Working Classes During the Period of Industrialization Westport: Greenwood Press 1985 [Google Scholar] and Hoerder, ‘Struggle a Hard Battle’: Essays on Working‐Class Immigrants Hoerder Dirk ‘Struggle a Hard Battle’: Essays on Working‐Class Immigrants DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press 1986 [Google Scholar]. Hoerder Hoerder Dirk Cultures in Contact: World Migrations in the Second Millenium. Durham: Duke University Press 2002 [Google Scholar], Cultures in Contact, 344; Mormino and Pozzetta, The Immigrant World of Ybor City; Babson, Building the Union Babson Steve Building the Union: Skilled Workers and Anglo‐Gaelic Immigrants in the Rise of the UAW. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press 1991 [Google Scholar]; Schwartz Schwartz Sharron, P ‘Bridging the Great Divide: Cornish Labor Migration to the United States and the Creation of Transnational Identity.’ Paper presented at the ‘Citizens, Nations and Cultures’ Conference, Maastricht, Netherlands October 2002 [Google Scholar], ‘Bridging the Great Divide’; Blewett, Constant Turmoil Blewett Mary, H Constant Turmoil: The Politics of Industrial Life in Nineteenth Century New England Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press 2000 [Google Scholar]. Nearly 25 years ago, Andrew Dawson called attention to this phenomenon in ‘The Paradox,’ 325–51. A more recent econometric study that confirms the importance of skilled worker migrations in the late 19th and early 20th centuries is: Rosenbloom Rosenbloom Joshua, L Looking for Work, Search for Workers: American Labor Markets During Industrialization New York: Cambridge University Press 2002 [Google Scholar], Looking for Work, Search for Workers. Evidence of the ongoing importance of migrating craftsmen can be found in Babson, Building the Union Babson Steve Building the Union: Skilled Workers and Anglo‐Gaelic Immigrants in the Rise of the UAW. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press 1991 [Google Scholar]; Schwartz Schwartz Sharron, P ‘Bridging the Great Divide: Cornish Labor Migration to the United States and the Creation of Transnational Identity.’ Paper presented at the ‘Citizens, Nations and Cultures’ Conference, Maastricht, Netherlands October 2002 [Google Scholar], ‘Bridging The Great Divide’; and Blewett Blewett Mary, H Constant Turmoil: The Politics of Industrial Life in Nineteenth Century New England Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press 2000 [Google Scholar], Constant Turmoil. Details of these efforts, begun by the Knights of Labor in the US, are contained in the Joseph Slight Papers at the Ohio Historical Society, microfilm edition, Reel 7 (hereafter Slight Papers); in Ware, The Labor Movement in the United States, 1860–1895: A Study in Democracy, 198–99; and in Ken Fones‐Wolf, ‘Immigrants, Labor and Capital in a Transnational Context,’ 63. Ewa Morawska Morawska Ewa ‘Immigrants, Transnationalism, and Ethnicization: A Comparison of This Great Wave and the Last.’ In E Pluribus Unum? Contemporary and Historical Perspectives on Immigrant Political Incorporation edited by Gerstle Gary Mollenkopf John New York: Russell Sage Foundation 2001 [Google Scholar], ‘Immigrants, Transnationalism, and Ethnicization,’ 176–77. Gabaccia Gabaccia Donna, R Italy's Many Diasporas. Seattle: University of Washington Press 2000 [Google Scholar], Italy's Many Diasporas, 82–87; Bukowczyk, And My Children Did Not Know Me Bukowczyk John, J And My Children Did Not Know Me: a History of Polish‐Americans. Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1987 [Google Scholar], 22–23. Just a cursory look at the National Glass Budget and the Commoner and Glassworker emphasize the importance of maintaining information on the international character of the industry. See also, Fones‐Wolf, ‘Immigrants, Labor and Capital in a Transnational Context,’ 59–80. See, especially, Gabaccia Gabaccia Donna, R Italy's Many Diasporas. Seattle: University of Washington Press 2000 [Google Scholar], Italy's Many Diasporas, Chaps. 4 and 5, for a discussion of the ways that the proletarian cosmopolitanism of migrants can encourage a working‐class internationalism, even if somewhat different from the one predicted by Karl Marx. See also, Cannistraro and Meyer Cannistraro Philip Gerald Meyer The Lost World of Italian‐American Radicalism Westport, CT: Praeger 2003 [Google Scholar], The Lost World of Italian‐American Radicalism and the essays in Hoerder's ‘Struggle a Hard Battle’. Hoerder Dirk ‘Struggle a Hard Battle’: Essays on Working‐Class Immigrants DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press 1986 [Google Scholar] Nugent Nugent Walter Crossings: The Great Transatlantic Migrations, 1870–1914 Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1992 [Google Scholar], Crossings: The Great Transatlantic Migrations, 1870–1914, 41; Hoerder, Labor Migration in the Atlantic Economies Hoerder Dirk Labor Migration in the Atlantic Economies: The European and North American Working Classes During the Period of Industrialization Westport: Greenwood Press 1985 [Google Scholar], 16; US Bureau of the Census US Bureau of the Census Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 2 vols Washington: GPO 1975 [Google Scholar], Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, 117. For the importance of Belgian craftsmen in Europe and the United States, see Barker and Harris Barker TC Harris JR A Merseyside Town in the Industrial Revolution: St. Helens 1750–1900. London: Frank Cass 1993 c1954 [Google Scholar], A Merseyside Town in the Industrial Revolution: St. Helens 1750–1900; Ronin Ronin, Vladimir. 1994–95. ‘Les Ourvrier Wallons dans la Region de Petersbourg en 1900.’, Revue Belge d'Histoire Contemporaine, 25: 79–97. [Google Scholar], ‘Les Ourvrier Wallons dans la Region de Petersbourg en 1900,’ 79–97; US Immigration Commission US Immigration Commission Immigrants in Industry: Glass Manufacturing Washington: Government Printing Office 1911 [Google Scholar], Immigrants in Industries: Glass Manufacturing, Part 12, 30–39; and Scoville Scoville Warren Revolution in Glassmaking: Entrepreneurship and Technological Change in the American Industry, 1880–1920 Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1948 [Google Scholar], Revolution in Glassmaking: Entrepreneurship and Technological Change in the American Industry, 1880–1920, 31, 34. Marcel Brigotte, Histoire Industriel de Charlero Brigotte Marcel Histoire Industriel de Charleroi. Mont‐sur‐Marchienne: n.p. 1984 [Google Scholar], 129–32. Weeks, Report, 69, reported that ‘Belgium is pre‐eminently the window‐glass manufacturer of the world,’ and that there was not a country in Europe ‘in which Belgian window‐glass does not find a market.’ Watillon Watillon Leon The Knights of Labor in Belgium Los Angeles: Institute of Labor Relations 1959 [Google Scholar], The Knights of Labor in Belgium, 7–8; ‘Report of James Campbell,’ 14 September 1888, in Slight Papers, Reel 7. Strikwerda Strikwerda, Carl. 1991. ‘Interest‐Group Politics and the International Economy: Mass Politics and Big Business Corporations in the Liege Coal Basin, 1870–1914.’, Journal of Social History, 25: 279 [Google Scholar], ‘Interest‐Group Politics and the International Economy: Mass Politics and Big Business Corporations in the Liege Coal Basin, 1870–1914,’ 279; Schaeffer, Charleroi 1830–1914, 113–14. Hilden Hilden Patricia Penn Women, Work and Politics: Belgium, 1830–1914 New York: Oxford University Press 1993 [Google Scholar], Women, Work and Politics Belgium, 1830–1914, 31, characterizes this era as ‘the most purely laissez‐faire system anywhere in the industrializing world.’ Details are included in the Minutes of LA 300, Reels 1 and 7 of the Slight Papers. Also, see the report of the ‘Universal Convention of Window Glass Workers, Held at Charleroi,’ August 1–4, 1888, Reel 7, Slight Papers. Piette Piette Albert ‘La Fete du Travail: Approche Dynamique du Rituel.’ Revue du Nord no. 293 October–December 1991 623 45 [Google Scholar], ‘La Fete du Travail: Approche Dynamique du Rituel,’ 623–45. Liebman Liebman Marcel Les Socialistes Belges, 1885–1914: Revolte et L'organisation. 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Kesteloot Kesteloot Chantal ‘Growth of the Walloon Movement.’ In Nationalisms in Belgium: Shifting Identities, 1780–1995 edited by Deprez Kas Vos Louis New York: St. Martin's Press 1998 [Google Scholar], ‘Growth of the Walloon Movement,’ 140–41; Hoerder, ‘Struggle a Hard Battle,’ 16. See Moch Moch Leslie Page ‘Migration and the Nation: The View from Paris.’, Social Science History 28 (Spring 2004) 1 18 [Google Scholar], ‘Migration and the Nation: The View from Paris,’ 1–18, for the hybrid, but flexible identities that these regional groups developed within their national boundaries. Ronin Ronin, Vladimir. 1994–95. ‘Les Ourvrier Wallons dans la Region de Petersbourg en 1900.’, Revue Belge d'Histoire Contemporaine, 25: 79–97. [Google Scholar], ‘Les Ouvriers Wallons,’ 86–92; Hilden Hilden Patricia Penn Women, Work and Politics: Belgium, 1830–1914 New York: Oxford University Press 1993 [Google Scholar], Women, Work and Politics, 43, 106–7, 254. Gerard Gerard Emanuel ‘The Christian Workers' Movement as a Mass Foundation of the Flemish Movement.’ In Nationalism in Belgium: Shifting Identities, 1780–1995 edited by Kas Deprez and Louis Vos. New York: St. Martin's Press 1998 [Google Scholar], ‘The Christian Workers' Movement as a Mass Foundation of the Flemish Movement,’ 127–29. Strikwerda Strikwerda Carl A House Divided: Catholics, Socialists, and Flemish Nationalists in Nineteenth‐Century Belgium. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield 1997 [Google Scholar], A House Divided: Catholics, Socialists, and Flemish Nationalists in Nineteenth‐Century Belgium, 88, 162; Watillon Watillon Leon The Knights of Labor in Belgium Los Angeles: Institute of Labor Relations 1959 [Google Scholar], The Knights of Labor in Belgium, 2–5, 17–18; Ronin Ronin, Vladimir. 1994–95. ‘Les Ourvrier Wallons dans la Region de Petersbourg en 1900.’, Revue Belge d'Histoire Contemporaine, 25: 79–97. [Google Scholar], ‘Les Ouvriers Wallons,’ 89–90. Strikwerda, for example, notes that Destree, as late as 1912, continued to claim there are no Belgians, only Flemings and Walloons (p. 37). National Glass Budget, 1 September 1900, 8; 28 May 1898, 4; 12 August 1899, 2; Commoner and Glassworker, 18 June 1898, 6; interview with Eudor Zabeau, in Barkey Barkey Fred Cinderheads in the Hills: The Belgian Window Glass Workers of West Virginia. Charleston: WV Humanities Council 1988 [Google Scholar], Cinderheads in the Hills: The Belgian Window Glass Workers of West Virginia, 35. For the comparison with Russia, see Ronin Ronin, Vladimir. 1994–95. ‘Les Ourvrier Wallons dans la Region de Petersbourg en 1900.’, Revue Belge d'Histoire Contemporaine, 25: 79–97. [Google Scholar], ‘Les Ouvriers Wallons,’ 79–97; for a comparison with the Italians, see Gabaccia Gabaccia Donna, R Italy's Many Diasporas. Seattle: University of Washington Press 2000 [Google Scholar], Italy's Many Diasporas, 99–105. Carre Carre, R. September–October 1986. ‘Les Greves Tragiques de 1886 en Belgique.’, Gavroche: Revue d'Histoire Populaire, 29: 9–14. [Google Scholar], ‘Les Greves Tragiques,’ 10. Also, see Hilden Hilden Patricia Penn Women, Work and Politics: Belgium, 1830–1914 New York: Oxford University Press 1993 [Google Scholar], Women, Work, and Politics, 257. National Labor Tribune, 20 April 1893, 1; National Glass Budget, 4 February 1899, 3, 26 January 1901, 2. LA 300, Minutes, 19 April 1889, Reel 7, Slight Papers; Richard John O'Connor O'Connor Richard John ‘Cinderheads and Iron Lungs: Window‐Glass Craftsmen and the Transformation of Workers' Control, 1880–1905.’ Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh 1991 [Google Scholar], ‘Cinderheads and Iron Lungs: Window‐Glass Craftsmen and the Transformation of Workers' Control, 1880–1905,’ 175. LA 300, Minutes, 27 March 1885, 29 July 1892; O'Connor O'Connor Richard John ‘Cinderheads and Iron Lungs: Window‐Glass Craftsmen and the Transformation of Workers' Control, 1880–1905.’ Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh 1991 [Google Scholar], ‘Cinderheads and Iron Lungs,’ 175. National Glass Budget, 19 October 1901, 8. LA 300 was unusual for its craft‐unionism in the Knights. The glassworkers resisted any attempt by the Order to strip them of their autonomy and make them fit the District Assembly structure of the organization. See Ware, The Labor Movement in the United States, 191, 195–200. Barkey, Cinderheads in the Hills Barkey Fred Cinderheads in the Hills: The Belgian Window Glass Workers of West Virginia. Charleston: WV Humanities Council 1988 [Google Scholar]. National Glass Budget, 28 May 1898, 4, 18 June 1898, 6; Commoner and Glassworker, 18 June 1898, 13. See, for just one example, the advertisement of the B&O Railroad, in Commoner and Glassworker, 28 July 1900, 4. Similar advertisements began appearing every spring as the end of the blast approached. US Immigration Commission US Immigration Commission Immigrants in Industry: Glass Manufacturing Washington: Government Printing Office 1911 [Google Scholar], Immigrants in Industry: Glass Manufacturing, Part 12, 181, 183–84; Commoner and Glassworker, 23 April 1898; National Glass Budget, 2 June 1900, 1. For the Pittsburgh glass community and its sociability, see Couvares Couvares Francis, G The Remaking of Pittsburgh: Class and Culture in an Industrializing City, 1877–1919. Albany: SUNY Press 1984 [Google Scholar], The Remaking of Pittsburgh: Class and Culture in an Industrializing City, 1877–1919, 31–50; McIlvain McIlvain, Josephine. October 1977. ‘Twelve Blocks: A Study of One Segment of Pittsburgh's South Side, 1880–1915,’, Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine, 60: 352–7. [Google Scholar], ‘Twelve Blocks: A Study of One Segment of Pittsburgh's South Side, 1880–1915,’ 352–7. National Glass Budget, 4 February 1899, 3; Commoner and Glassworker, 26 October 1899, 1. For gender practices in Belgium, see Hilden Hilden Patricia Penn Women, Work and Politics: Belgium, 1830–1914 New York: Oxford University Press 1993 [Google Scholar], Women, Work and Politics, 145–7, 186–8, 254–7. Commoner and Glassworker, 28 October 1899, 1, 4 November 1899, 12. For the numbers of women in window glass, see US Census, Manufactures 1905: Part III: Special Reports on Selected Industries, 844. This information was related to me at a talk I gave to the Belgian‐American Heritage Society in Clarksburg, WV, by daughters and grand‐daughters of Belgian glassworkers. Clara McCann, grand‐daughter of Edgar Quinaut, then confirmed it by sharing with me the deed for her family's purchase of a home in 1916. The parties to the deed were ‘Camille Mottet, the wife of Louis Mottet, Party of the first part, and Clara Quinaut, the wife of Edgar Quinaut, party of the second part.’ Copy of deed in the author's possession. Commoner and Glassworker, 25 December 1897, 16; 23 December 1899, 3; 3 February 1900, 12; 21 April 1900, 4. LA 300, Minutes, 24 March, 19 May, 1888, 19 April, 17 May, 16 August, 4 October, 1889, Reel 7, Slight Papers. Colin Gordon characterizes the labor relations system of the window‐glass industry as ‘regulatory unionism,’ implying that both employers and workers gained from a system that regulated entrance to key production jobs as well as output, thereby eliminating competition and maintaining high wages and prices. See Gordon Gordon Colin New Deals: Business, Labor, and Politics in America, 1920–1935. New York: Cambridge University Press 1994 [Google Scholar], New Deals: Business, Labor, and Politics in America, 1920–1935, 110–113. Davis, The Development of the American Glass Industry Davis Pearce The Development of the American Glass Industry. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1949 [Google Scholar], and Scoville Scoville Warren Revolution in Glassmaking: Entrepreneurship and Technological Change in the American Industry, 1880–1920 Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1948 [Google Scholar], Revolution in Glassmaking, called it a ‘bilateral monopoly.’ O'Connor O'Connor Richard John ‘Cinderheads and Iron Lungs: Window‐Glass Craftsmen and the Transformation of Workers' Control, 1880–1905.’ Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh 1991 [Google Scholar], ‘Cinderheads and Iron Lungs,’ 108; LA 300, Minutes, 29 December 1889, Reel 7, Slight Papers. LA 300, Minutes, 31 January 1890, for evidence of the growing split between Pittsburgh and the rest of LA 300, and 10 April 1891, for the battle within the Jeannette preceptory, Reel 7, Slight Papers. This is discussed fully in O'Connor O'Connor Richard John ‘Cinderheads and Iron Lungs: Window‐Glass Craftsmen and the Transformation of Workers' Control, 1880–1905.’ Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh 1991 [Google Scholar], ‘Cinderheads and Iron Lungs,’ 142–155. LA 300, Minutes, 3 June 1899, Reel 7, Slight Papers; National Glass Budget, 12 November 1898, 6. See National Glass Budget, 12 November 1898, 6; 5 May 1900, 6; 16 June 1900, 1; 29 June 1901, 6 for complaints against Belgians. For the use of Immigration commissioner Robert Layton, see Ibid., 22 September 1900, 2. Details are in O'Connor O'Connor Richard John ‘Cinderheads and Iron Lungs: Window‐Glass Craftsmen and the Transformation of Workers' Control, 1880–1905.’ Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh 1991 [Google Scholar], ‘Cinderheads and Iron Lungs,’ Chap. 4. Ethnic aspects are covered in the National Glass Budget, 3 December 1898, 1; 16 June 1900, 1; 28 September 1901, 6. See, in particular, Fones‐Wolf, ‘Immigrants, Labor and Capital —— ‘Immigrants, Labor and Capital in a Transnational Context.’, Journal of American Ethnic History 21 (Winter 2002) 59 80 [Google Scholar],’ 68–73; O'Connor O'Connor Richard John ‘Cinderheads and Iron Lungs: Window‐Glass Craftsmen and the Transformation of Workers' Control, 1880–1905.’ Ph.D. diss., University of Pittsburgh 1991 [Google Scholar], ‘Cinderheads and Iron Lungs,’ Chaps. 3–4. National Glass Budget, 3 December 1898, 1; 22 November 1902, 1; LA 300, minutes, 1 September 1900, reel 7, Slight Papers. National Glass Budget, 28 September 1901, 6. National Glass Budget, 3 December 1898, 1; 29 June 1901, 6; 27 July 1901, 1; 7 September 1901, 6. National Glass Budget, 26 January 1901, 2; 8 June 1901, 1; 19 April 1902; 2; 3 May 1902, 6. See also the analysis of Charleroi militancy and defiance in Hilden Hilden Patricia Penn Women, Work and Politics: Belgium, 1830–1914 New York: Oxford University Press 1993 [Google Scholar], Women, Work, and Politics, 162–4, 253–61. National Glass Budget, 3 December 1898, 1; 27 August 1898, 6; 28 September 1901, 6. Commoner and Glassworker, 27 July 1901, 13; 31 August 1901, 12; Davis Davis Pearce The Development of the American Glass Industry. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1949 [Google Scholar], History of Harrison County, West Virginia, 759. Commoner and Glassworker, 28 April 1900, 5. Commoner and Glassworker, 15 August 1903, 1; 7 August 1909, 6. An excellent example of this phenomonenon in a more recent context is found in Peggy Levitt, The Transnational Villagers. Levitt Peggy The Transnational Villagers. Berkeley: University of California Press 2001 [Crossref] , [Google Scholar] However, Ewa Morawska Morawska Ewa ‘Immigrants, Transnationalism, and Ethnicization: A Comparison of This Great Wave and the Last.’ In E Pluribus Unum? Contemporary and Historical Perspectives on Immigrant Political Incorporation edited by Gerstle Gary Mollenkopf John New York: Russell Sage Foundation 2001 [Google Scholar], ‘Immigrants, Transnationalism, and Ethnicization,’ 178–79 is correct that students of the recent transnational communities draw a false dichotomy between the migrations at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. Commoner and Glassworker, 7 September 1901, 15. Interview with George DelForge, in Barkey, Cinderheads in the Hills Barkey Fred Cinderheads in the Hills: The Belgian Window Glass Workers of West Virginia. Charleston: WV Humanities Council 1988 [Google Scholar], 29. Commoner and Glassworker, 7 September 1901; 13 June 1908; Fones‐Wolf, ‘Immigrants, Labor and Capital,’ —— ‘Immigrants, Labor and Capital in a Transnational Context.’, Journal of American Ethnic History 21 (Winter 2002) 59 80 [Google Scholar] 71–72; Barkey, Cinderheads in the Hills Barkey Fred Cinderheads in the Hills: The Belgian Window Glass Workers of West Virginia. Charleston: WV Humanities Council 1988 [Google Scholar], 23–35. Interviews with Omar Lambiotte and Adrian DeMeester, in Barkey, Cinderheads in the Hills, 26, 35. Interview with George Villian, in Barkey, Cinderheads in the Hills Barkey Fred Cinderheads in the Hills: The Belgian Window Glass Workers of West Virginia. Charleston: WV Humanities Council 1988 [Google Scholar], 23. LA 300, as well as subsequent unions in the industry, allowed only sons, nephews and brothers to be admitted to apprenticeships. DeMeester interview, in Barkey, Cinderheads in the Hills Barkey Fred Cinderheads in the Hills: The Belgian Window Glass Workers of West Virginia. Charleston: WV Humanities Council 1988 [Google Scholar], 26. My census research used the US Census, manuscript schedules 1910 and 1920 for the glassworker neighborhoods in Clarksburg, in Harrison County, West Virginia. My 1920 sample included 28 Belgian daughters, aged 16 and above; half were at home with no occupation, eight were in clerical or sales jobs, two were teachers, two were laundresses and two worked in glass plants. This pattern conforms with that found by DeVault, in Sons and Daughters of Labor: Class and Clerical Work in Turn of the Century Pittsburgh. For the patriarchal family emphasis in St. Petersburg, Russia, see Ronin Ronin, Vladimir. 1994–95. ‘Les Ourvrier Wallons dans la Region de Petersbourg en 1900.’, Revue Belge d'Histoire Contemporaine, 25: 79–97. [Google Scholar], ‘Les Ouvriers Wallons,’ 86–87. Life in some working‐class migrant enclaves in the United States transformed the male domination of social life; see, for example, Bukowczyk, And My Children Did Not Know Me Bukowczyk John, J And My Children Did Not Know Me: a History of Polish‐Americans. Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1987 [Google Scholar], 39. But in the case of the Belgians, women brought with them expectations of important roles in community sociability. See the numerous descriptions of events dotting the social calendar from the various Belgian window‐glass towns in Commoner and Glassworker. For just a few examples, see 2 June 1900, 13; 8 August 1908, 13; 7 August 1909, 6; and 13 November 1909, 5. For World War I activities, see Salem (WV) Express, 23 October 1914; 5 February, 1915. My sample of 20 Belgian women from the 1920 census of Clarksburg, West Virginia, showed that 18 had Belgian husbands, one was married to a Frenchman, and one to an American. Clarksburg (WV) News, 22 November 1906; Commoner and Glassworker, 1 October 1910, 14. Ken Fones‐Wolf, ‘Work, Culture and Politics in Industrializing West Virginia: The Glassworkers of Clarksburg and Moundsville, 1891–1919.’ West Virginia History 58 (1999–2000): 16. Gabaccia Gabaccia Donna, R Italy's Many Diasporas. Seattle: University of Washington Press 2000 [Google Scholar], Italy's Many Diasporas, Chap. 5. Clarksburg News, 19 February 1906, 21, 27, August 1908. This is not unlike the consciousness of Belgian glassworkers in St. Petersburg, according the Vladimir Ronin Ronin, Vladimir. 1994–95. ‘Les Ourvrier Wallons dans la Region de Petersbourg en 1900.’, Revue Belge d'Histoire Contemporaine, 25: 79–97. [Google Scholar], ‘Les Ouvriers Wallons,’ 79–97. For the response of one particular community, see Salem (WV) Express, 6 November 1914; 9 April 1915; 9 November 1916. For the growing concern of the window‐glass workers for Belgium, see, The National (organ of the National Window Glass Workers of America), January 1916, 8–9, October 1916, 20–21, November 1916, 11, February 1919, 12. Ken Fones‐Wolf Fones‐Wolf Ken ‘A Craftsman's Paradise in Appalachia: Glassworkers and the Transformation of Clarksburg, 1900–1933.’, Journal of Appalachian Studies 1 (Fall 1995) 67 86 [Google Scholar], ‘A Craftsman's Paradise in Appalachia,’ 76–79. See, especially, Montgomery Montgomery David ‘Nationalism, American Patriotism, and Class Consciousness Among Immigrant Workers in the United States in the Epoch of World War I.’ In ‘Struggle a Hard Battle’: Essays on Working‐Class Immigrants edited by Hoerder D DeKalb Northern Illinois University Press 1986 [Google Scholar], ‘Nationalism, American Patriotism, and Class Consciousness Among Immigrant Workers in the United States in the Epoch of World War I,’ 327–46. This is described in more detail in Fones‐Wolf Fones‐Wolf Ken ‘A Craftsman's Paradise in Appalachia: Glassworkers and the Transformation of Clarksburg, 1900–1933.’, Journal of Appalachian Studies 1 (Fall 1995) 67 86 [Google Scholar], ‘A Craftsman's Paradise in Appalachia,’ 76–77. This list was compiled from minutes of meetings and lists of local officers in the records of the Federation of Flat Glass Workers, Local 2 (Clarksburg, WV), in the West Virginia and Regional History Collection, West Virginia University. Robert F. Harney's phrase, ‘men without women,’ as explored in Gabaccia Gabaccia Donna, R Italy's Many Diasporas. Seattle: University of Washington Press 2000 [Google Scholar], Italy's Many Diasporas, 83–87. See also Montgomery Montgomery David The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism, 1865–1925 New York: Cambridge University Press 1987 Chap. 2 [Crossref] , [Google Scholar], The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism, 1865–1925, Chap. 2. Hoerder, Labor Migration Hoerder Dirk Labor Migration in the Atlantic Economies: The European and North American Working Classes During the Period of Industrialization Westport: Greenwood Press 1985 [Google Scholar], 451. Basch, Glick Schiller, and Szanton Blanc Basch Linda Nina Glick Schiller Cristina Szanton Blanc Nations Unbound: Transnational Projects, Postcolonial Predicaments, and Deterritorialized Nation‐States. 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