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The use of the kidneys in secular and ritual practices according to ancient Greek and Byzantine texts

2005; Elsevier BV; Volume: 68; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.00404.x

1523-1755

Athanasios Diamandopoulos, Andreas Skarpelos, Γεώργιος Τσίρος,

Dietary Effects on Health

The use of the kidneys in secular and spiritual practices according to ancient Greek and Byzantine texts. The use of kidneys in secular and spiritual practices was very common for centuries. In this article we present some references on their employment as sacrificial offers, as plain food or as a source for medicaments. Our material derives from Greek texts of the Classical, Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine eras. Relevant extracts from the Old Testament are also included, as they have become part of a common cultural heritage in that period of syncretism, when Jews were Hellenized and Greeks orientized. From the fragments cited in this article, it is obvious that the practical use of kidneys by priests, doctors, and lay persons in the periods under discussion was widespread. The sacrificial offering was based on the religious significance of the organ. The dietary consumption of the kidneys was limited by their function as urine producers. Their medicinal use was dictated first, by the abundance of the adipose tissue surrounding them, which was an ideal warming and binding substance. Second, it may be explained by the deeply rooted conviction that eating a particular organ led to the incorporation of its strength, thus protecting the corresponding eater's organs. Those practices should not surprise us in view of their corresponding modern use. Currently, kidney donors offer their organs in a sacrificial gesture, kidneys are consumed as a delicacy worldwide, and renal tissue is therapeutically used in transplantations and, until very recently, as a source for hormonal substances. The use of the kidneys in secular and spiritual practices according to ancient Greek and Byzantine texts. The use of kidneys in secular and spiritual practices was very common for centuries. In this article we present some references on their employment as sacrificial offers, as plain food or as a source for medicaments. Our material derives from Greek texts of the Classical, Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine eras. Relevant extracts from the Old Testament are also included, as they have become part of a common cultural heritage in that period of syncretism, when Jews were Hellenized and Greeks orientized. From the fragments cited in this article, it is obvious that the practical use of kidneys by priests, doctors, and lay persons in the periods under discussion was widespread. The sacrificial offering was based on the religious significance of the organ. The dietary consumption of the kidneys was limited by their function as urine producers. Their medicinal use was dictated first, by the abundance of the adipose tissue surrounding them, which was an ideal warming and binding substance. Second, it may be explained by the deeply rooted conviction that eating a particular organ led to the incorporation of its strength, thus protecting the corresponding eater's organs. Those practices should not surprise us in view of their corresponding modern use. Currently, kidney donors offer their organs in a sacrificial gesture, kidneys are consumed as a delicacy worldwide, and renal tissue is therapeutically used in transplantations and, until very recently, as a source for hormonal substances. The historic review of peoples' beliefs as to the importance of the kidneys is rather fascinating. We have been examining this matter as regards to the several ways of substituting kidney function[1.Diamandopoulos A. A history of natural membranes in dialysis.Am J Nephrol. 1997; 17: 304-314Crossref PubMed Scopus (5) Google Scholar],[2.Diamandopoulos A. Goudas P. The substitution of renal function through skin catharsis, a clinicohistorical review.Kidney Int. 2000; 59: 1580-1589Abstract Full Text Full Text PDF Scopus (7) Google Scholar], to depicting them artistically[3.Diamandopoulos A. Medieval Art and Nephrology Highlights from the History of Nephrology edited by Diamandopoulos A Athens, Technogramma.1995: 20-37Google Scholar], to bestowing them with religious and sexual properties[4.Diamandopoulos A. Goudas P. The role of the kidney as a cultural, religious and sexual symbol.Am J Nephrol. 2002; 22: 107-111Crossref Scopus (3) Google Scholar], to exploiting the pharmaceutical use of their product (urine)[5.Diamandopoulos A. Diamandopoulou H. Human excrements as drugs in multicultural societies.Proceedings of the 11th Congress on Medical Law International Centre of Medicine and Law, South Africa. 1996: 233-238Google Scholar], or to blaming their ailments as causing the failures of various illustrious personalities[6.Diamandopoulos A. Skarpelos A. Illustrious personalities of Ancient and Byzantine Greece with renal problems.J Nephrol. 2004; 17: 590-599Google Scholar]. In the present article, we will examine their use in secular and spiritual practices. In particular, we shall present some references on their employment as sacrificial offers, as a source for medicaments or just as plain food. Those practices should not surprise us in view of their corresponding modern use. Currently, kidney donors too offer their organs in a sacrificial gesture, kidneys are consumed as a delicacy worldwide, and similarly, renal tissue is therapeutically used in transplantations and until very recently as a source for hormonal substances. The available historic information derives from Greek texts of the Classical, Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine eras. Relevant extracts from the Old Testament are also presented, apparently written originally in Hebrew, but having been translated by the first century B.c. into Greek. Hence, they became part of a common cultural heritage in that period of syncretism, when Jews were Hellenized and Greeks orientized. It is very difficult to trace who influenced whom. The Jewish tradition is obviously older than the presented Greek texts, which however report on practices of the past. Moreover, some of these texts, like the fragments from Homer's The Iliad, are actually very old. On the other hand, the well-known definition of God “He who examines the kidneys and the heart” had passed into Greco-Christian literature, deriving from the Old Testament. Interestingly, this Jewish belief originated from the Ancient Egyptians who, for this reason, did not enclose the kidneys inside the mummified corpses, but left them outside, to be readily examined by the judging God. It was a time-honored practice during an animal sacrifice for the propitiation of God(s), instead of offering the entire animal at the altar, offering just some of the viscera. Among those, the kidneys and the perirenal fat possessed an important role, in both Pagan and Jewish religion[7.Kopple J. The biblical view of the kidney.Am J Nephrol. 1994; 14: 279-281Crossref PubMed Scopus (12) Google Scholar]. The rationale of this practice was the belief that the locus of thoughts and desires, the animal force itself (the “anima vita”) lies in the kidneys. Already in The Iliad, Homer (eighth century B.c.) describes the complete loss of manly power from the Trojan leaders Lykaonas and Asteropaios, who perished when the fish of the Scamandros river devoured their perirenal (adrenal) fat “and some fish, where the sea tally waves dark, it will jump to eat Lykaonas' white fat”[8.Homer's The Iliad, Φ: 126-127, (English translation from the original Greek text by the authors.2005Google Scholar], and “he said, and pulled the cupreous spear from the shore, and abandoned this man there, after he took his life, soaking from deep water, lying down on the sand. Eels and fish surrounded him, and fought to eat the fat all round his kidneys”[9.Homer's The Iliad, Φ: 200-204, (English translation from the original Greek text by the authors).2005Google Scholar]. This precious little adipose tissue that symbolized life itself constituted an outstanding sacrificial offer. The poet Ephron (third century B.c.) writes in verse, teasing Lycus “while everybody was observing the liver of the sacrificial animal, you secretly lowered your hand and threw sneakily the kidney of the animal into the pit. So a great fuss was created. Everybody shouted that the animal does not have kidneys and they bent in the ground because of the loss”[10.Kock T. KOCK, 1888 editor volume 31.23 to 1.27 English translation from the original Greek text by the authorsComicorum Atticorum fragmenta Leipzig, Teubner. 1888Google Scholar]. The abstract is indicative of the particular symbolic importance of the kidneys of sacrificed animals. There are many references in the Old Testament to sacrificial offers to Jehovah. While there is some diversity on the account of the specific intestines offered, there is a general agreement on kidneys and perirenal fat. For example, “Also thou shalt take of the ram the fat and the rump, and the fat that covereth the inwards, and the caul above the liver, and the two kidneys, and the fat that is upon them, and the right shoulder; for it is a ram of consecration”[11.Exodus, 29.22.The Holy Bible edited by The Gideons International, USA, National Publishing Company. 1981Google Scholar]. “And he shall offer of the sacrifice of the peace offering an offering made by fire unto the Lord; the fat that covereth the inwards, and all the fat that is upon the inwards, and the two kidneys, and the fat that is on them, which is by the flanks, and the caul above the liver, with the kidneys, it shall he take away. And Aaron's sons shall burn it on the altar upon the burnt sacrifice, which is upon the wood that is on the fire: it is an offering made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the Lord…. And he shall offer of the sacrifice of the peace offering an offering made by fire unto the Lord; the fat thereof, and the whole rump, it shall he take off hard by the backbone; and the fat that covereth the inwards, and all the fat that is upon the inwards, and the two kidneys, and the fat that is upon them, which is by the flanks, and the caul above the liver, with the kidneys, it shall he take away. And the priest shall burn it upon the altar: it is the food of the offering made by fire unto the Lord…. And he brought the bullock for the sin offering: and Aaron and his sons laid their hands upon the head of the bullock for the sin offering. And he slew it; and Moses took the blood, and put it upon the horns of the altar round about with his finger, and purified the altar, and poured the blood at the bottom of the altar, and sanctified it, to make reconciliation upon it. And he took all the fat that was upon the inwards, and the caul above the liver, and the two kidneys, and their fat, and Moses burned it upon the altar. But the bullock, and his hide, his flesh, and his dung, he burnt with fire without the camp; as the Lord commanded Moses…. He slew also the bullock and the ram for a sacrifice of peace offerings, which was for the people: and Aaron's sons presented unto him the blood, which he sprinkled upon the altar round about, and the fat of the bullock and of the ram, the rump, and that which covereth the inwards, and the kidneys, and the caul above the liver: And they put the fat upon the breasts, and he burnt the fat upon the altar: And the breasts and the right shoulder Aaron waved for a wave offering before the Lord; as Moses commanded”[12.Leviticus, 3.3 to 3.5, 9 to 11, 8.14 to 8.17, 9.18 to 9.21.The Holy Bible edited by The Gideons International, USA, National Publishing Company. 1981Google Scholar]. The historian and sophist Philo Judeus (first century B.c. and first century A.d.) tries to explain the sacrificial habits of Jews, with his own, deterministic and “heretical” for the period, way. “About sacrifices, it is not important if the sacrificial animal is male or female. After it is slaughtered, they offer in the altar the following three: the fat, the lobe of liver and the two kidneys; the rest remains to the sacrificing people. It is difficult to explain with precision why these particular concrete viscera are offered. Many times I have personally thought and wondered why the law imposes to be offered first of all the lobe of liver, the kidneys and the fat of the sacrificed animals and not the heart or the brain, in which reside the hegemonic [administrative, cognitive] functions of the body. I believe that the same question must have occupied also other people…. If they find a more likely explanation, it will be useful for them and for me. If not, let them reproach my own explanation, which is the following: The cognitive functions include, among others, folly, unfairness, cowardice and the other malice. All these reside in the brain and heart. The holy reason therefore considered them not to be fair to be offered in the sacrifices, with which solution and forgiveness of sins and illegalities is given; for they have been containers in which the mind that sidestepped from the street of virtue has nestled. For this reason I believe that the brain and the heart are not offered. Unlike them, the following are offered, for suitable reasons: the fat, because it is thick and protects the gut, as it covers them, lubricates them and it profits them with its soft contact; the kidneys, because they help the adjacent testicles and the genital organs, so that the sperm of nature is produced (the kidneys are reservoirs of blood and excrete the humid excrements of body, and the testicles, that irrigate and maintain the sperm, are found nearby); the lobe of liver constitutes the beginning of the most important gut, with which the blood is drawn from the foods and it is produced in the heart, by where it is distributed via the veins in the whole body”[13.Cohn L. Philonis Alexandrini opera quae supersuntCOHN, 1906 editor Berlin, Reimer reprinted De Gruyter volume 5, 1.212.1 to 1.217.1 (English translation from the original Greek text by the authors).1962Google Scholar]. The same information is also given by the historian Flavius Josephus (first century A.d.). “After slaughtering the sacrificed animals, they sprinkle the altar with blood and they offer on it the kidneys, the omentum and all the fat with the lobe of liver, and with them the tail of the lamb”[14.Niese B. editor Berlin, Weidmann1:1887, 2:1885, 3:1892, 4:1890, reprinted 1955, 3.228.3 to 3.229.1 (English translation from the original Greek text by the authors) Flavii Iosephi Opera.2005Google Scholar]. The Fathers of the Christian Church give their interpretations of the sacrificial habits described in the Old Testament. Cyril of Alexandria (fourth and fifth centuries) writes “They used to offer God the breast and the arm, the lobe of liver and the two kidneys from each sacrificed animal”[15.Pusey P.E. editor Oxford, Clarendon Press 1868, reprinted Brussels, Culture et Civilisation, 1965, 2.572.22 to 2.572.24 Sancti patris nostri Cyrilli archiepiscopi Alexandrini in xii prophetas.2005Google Scholar]. “And the priest will cut… the two kidneys and their fat, and the fat of the thighs, and the lobe of the liver with the kidneys and he will offer them to the altar … . The viscera, the fat and the kidneys and the lobe of the liver are offered, [in resemblance] because they all, both the visible and the hidden, smell sweetly, like Christ”[16.MPG (Migne Patrologia Greca), 68:964.38 Cyrilli archiepiscopy Alexandrini De adoratione et cultu in spiritu et veritate.2005Google Scholar]. These interpretations were naturally symbolic. The same author continues, “The altar symbolizes the church, and the blood the soul. The offer of offal, that is to say fat, liver and kidneys, implies that everything that is offered to Christ is saint and holy and has a sweet smell. The wise men say that all appetites and wishes are created in the liver. The kidney constitutes a discreet organ, as it excretes the unnecessary, after distinguishing it from the useful … . And the blissful David chants, God's words: ‘Each wish of mine addresses You, Lord’, and ‘For thou, Lord, hast possessed my reins’”[17.Glaphyra in Pentateuchum MPG (Migne Patrologia Greca), 69:548.4 to 69:548.12, 69.548.15 to 69:548.19.2005Google Scholar]. And elsewhere, “Moses ordered them to remove the kidneys and the fat and the breast and the lobe of liver from the sacrificed animal and to burn them on the altar. This abstraction symbolizes the removal of the forces against nature and energies of anger and wish and the obliteration of those with the divine fire of the force of intellectual knowledge. The kidney, and the energy that springs from it, that is to say pleasure, with fat, symbolizes desire. Anger is symbolized by the breast, while the energy that springs from it with the lobe of liver, from where the bitter and sharp bile springs”[18.Collectio dictorum veteris testamenti MPG (Migne Patrologia Greca), 77:1216.10 to 77:1216.20.2005Google Scholar]. Theodoretos Kyrou (fifth century) expresses a similar opinion. “The fat that covers the abdomen implies the illness of gluttony, the kidneys the sexual pleasures, and the lobe of the liver, the thymoides [the seat of courage and of anger]”[19.Fernandez Marcos N. Saenz-Badillos A. Theodoreti Cyrensis quaestiones in Octateuchum. Textos y Estudios “Cardenal Cisneros” 17 editors Madrid, Poliglota Matritense1979, 145.16 to 145.18.2005Google Scholar]. Basilius Ancyranus (fourth century) uses the symbolism of the sacrificial offer of kidneys to support the value of virginity. “God's Word, when He slaughtered via the wisest Moses the calf as a holy sacrifice, indicated to us the way of intellectual exercise, by the members of the calf that were offered to God: the Divine Word ordered them to offer the lobe of the liver, and not the entire liver, the fat that covers the abdomen, and not the entire abdomen, but not only the fat of kidneys, but also the kidneys themselves with their fat … . The kidneys do not appear useful for life, as the abdomen, neither for thought and the desire, but only for the desire of sexual intercourse. That is why they are burned with their fat; because it is possible for someone to be alive without them, that is to say without sexual action, and live in virginity in all his life, as the angels”[20.Basilius Ancyranus de virginate MPG (Migne Patrologia Greca), 30:808.15.2005Google Scholar]. Finally, Gregarious Nazianzenus (fourth century) in his cogitative theological speech, prompts the believers not to be confined in the symbolisms of sacrifices of Old Testament, but to sacrifice themselves spiritually to God. “Let us offer as sacrifice everything, all earthly members. Neither the lobe of the liver nor only the kidneys with their fat. Why should the rest body members be disgraced? Let us offer to our God ourselves. Let us become virtual holocausts and perfect victims”[21.In sanctum baptisma orat 40 MPG (Migne Patrologia Greca), 36:416.42 to 36:417.2.2005Google Scholar]. Generally, kidneys were not considered a chosen dish. This should be attributed, beyond subjective gastronomical preferences, to the physiologic repulsion they caused as the organs of urine production and sexual desire, but also to their religious perceptions. Almost all medical writers refer to their stinking, disgusting smell and to the gastrointestinal, mainly, side effects of their consumption. They call them bad juiced and fat juiced. However, we may suppose that many people consumed them, as today; otherwise, all deterrent dietary advice would not be needed. From the following text of the Old Testament it emerges that the kidneys were indeed eaten, even if the reference is symbolic. “He made him [Jacob] ride on the high places of the earth, that he might eat the increase of the fields; and he made him to suck honey out of the rock, and oil out of the flinty rock; Butter of kine, and milk of sheep, with fat of lambs, and rams of the breed of Bashan, and goats, with the fat of kidneys of wheat; and thou didst drink the pure blood of the grape”[22.Deuteronomy, 32.13-14 The Holy Bible edited by The Gideons International, USA, National Publishing Company.1981Google Scholar]. In the satirical collection Philogelos (fourth century), we find explicit report to the consumption of pork kidneys. “The orator Sidonios was discussing with his two friends. When they told him that it is not right for sheep to be slaughtered, since they offer us milk and wool, neither for cows that give us milk and tillage, the orator answered that neither for pigs is it right to be slaughtered, after they give us the liver, the breasts and their kidneys for food”[23.Thierfelder A. editor Munich, Heimeran Philogelos der Lachfreund von Hierokles und Philagrios.1968: 129Google Scholar]. Medical writers referred to the bad juice of the kidneys, excluding those of roosters. Galen writes, “Some include in the glands the kidneys too, because it appears to them that they have something adenoid. They are, in any case, obviously bad juiced [they are full of morbid juices] and indigestible, as the testicles of adult animals, when they cut them and eat them, while the testicles of younger animals are better food. The kidneys specifically of bulls, goats and rams have an unpleasant flavour, they are bad juiced and indigestible”[24.Helmreich G. editor Leipzig, Teubner 1923, 5.4.2, 6.675.11 to 6.675.16 (English translation from the original Greek text by the authors) Galeni de alimentorum facultatibus libri iii. Corpus medicorum Graecorum.1923Google Scholar]. “The kidneys and the testicles are bad juiced, apart from those of roosters, specially when they have been fed well”[25.Helmreich G. editor Leipzig, Teubner 1923, 5.4.2, 6.771.10 to 6.771.11 (English translation from the original Greek text by the authors) Galeni de rebus boni malique suci libellus. Corpus medicorum Graecorum.1923Google Scholar]. Elsewhere, he remarks that the kidneys are included in the most fattening foods, confirming the opinion that the kidneys were indeed eaten in his era. “ … the most fattening foods, as the tubers and snails and all the legumes and brains and from the intestines the liver, the spleen and the kidneys … ”[26.Kalbfleisch K. editor Leipzig, Teubner1923, 5.4.2, 114.5 to 115.1 (English translation from the original Greek text by the authors) Galeni de victu attenuante. Corpus medicorum Graecorum.1923Google Scholar]. The Greek doctor Orivasios from Pergamon (fourth century) also accuses the kidneys of being fat juiced and indigestible food. “About kidneys: the kidneys are obviously bad-juiced and indigestible … . Fat-juiced foods: … fairly fat-juiced are … all the shells, eels, snails, the meat of deer, goat, beef, hare and pork, the liver, kidneys, testicles, brain, spinal cord … . Bad-juiced foods: … the kidneys are bad-juiced as the testicles of adult animals, apart from them of roosters”[27.Raeder J. editor Leipzig, Teubner 1928, 6.1.1, 2.33, 3.3, 16 (English translation from the original Greek text by the authors) Oribasii collectionum medicarum reliquiae. Corpus medicorum Graecorum.1928Google Scholar]. “The stomach is indigestible food, as the intestines, uterus, cartilage, heart, liver, ears, tails, kidneys, all the gut, brain, spinal cord, testicles of adult animals, the blood from wherever it comes, and the geese apart from their feathers”[28.Raeder J. editor reprinted Amsterdam, Hakkert, 1964, 6.3, 4.17.2.1 to 4.17.3.1 (English translation from the original Greek text by the authors) Oribasii synopsis ad Eustathium et libri ad Eunapium. Corpus medicorum Graecorum Leipzig, Teubner. 1926Google Scholar]. Almost the same is repeated in the works of latter Byzantine doctors, as is Aetius Amidenus (sixth century), who moreover tries to explain, “The kidneys are obviously bad-juiced and indigestible, as they present in their taste the quality of urine.”[29.Olivieri A. editor 8.1, 125, 241.9 to 241.13, 253.10 to 253.11, 255.4 to 255.8 (English translation from the original Greek text by the authors) Aetii Amideni libri medicinales i-iv. Corpus medicorum Graecorum Leipzig, Teubner. 1935Google Scholar]. Paulus Aeginita (seventh century) wrote, “Kidneys and testicles are dirty and indigestible. Only those of fattened roosters are tasty and they constitute good food, while those of bulls, goats and rams are heavy and bad-juiced”[30.Heiberg J.L. editor Leipzig, Teubner 9.1, 9.2, 9.1:1921, 9.2:1924, 1.85.1.7 to 1.85.1.10 (English translation from the original Greek text by the authors) Paulus Aegineta. Corpus medicorum Graecorum.2005Google Scholar]. In late Byzantine anonymous medical codices we find, “Indigestible foods: The meat of goat, cattle, deer, and the worst of them is bill goat's, then follows rams' and afterwards bulls'. And the old animals are all indigestible, as the abdomen [the stomach], intestines, uterus, heart, liver, tails, kidneys, all the gut, brain, [spinal] cord and testicles of adult animals … . Bad-juiced foods: … Bad-juiced are the kidney of deer and the testicles of fat animals, apart from roosters … . Fat-juiced foods and foods that create sour juice: the meat of cattle, hare and pig, liver, kidneys, testicles … . Excreta foods (that is to say that create excrements, sputum and bile): wild pigeons, geese, apart from their feathers, all the gut, liver, spleen, kidney, intestines, and uterus. About kidneys and testicles: They are dirty and indigestible foods, apart from them of roosters. The testicles and kidneys are bad-juiced foods, smelly and not easy to digest”[31.Ideler J.L. editor reprinted Amsterdam, Hakkert, 1963, 2, 3.1 to 3.6, 10.12 to 10.14, 18.6, 21.1 to 21.2, 75.29 to 75.31 (English translation from the original Greek text by the authors) Physici et medici Graeci minores Berlin, Reimer. 1842Google Scholar] and “All the old animals are indigestible, as their various members, that is to say the legs, intestines, uterus, heart, liver, ears, kidneys … . Foods that create sour juice: … the meat of deer, cattle, hare and pig, the liver, kidneys, testicles, brain, breasts, tongues”[32.Ermerins F.Z. editor reprinted Amsterdam, Hakkert, 1963, 7.4 to 7.7, 14.14 to 14.17, 20.1, 6 to 8 (English translation from the original Greek text by the authors) Anecdota medica Graeca Leiden, Luchtmans. 1840Google Scholar]. The kidneys, the perirenal fat, and the urine have been used as medicine since prehistory. Their indications were usually renal and dermatological diseases but rarely a variety of other symptoms, too. The mode of action of these products was either via their—unknown up to then to users—natural properties as keratolytic, diuretic, and hormonal agencies, or as homeopathetic substances. The Greek pharmacologist Dioscorides (first century) wrote the most comprehensive work on drugs of the ancient world, the De Materia Medica. It contains the description of about a thousand vegetable, animal, and mineral products used for the preparation of medicines. Each substance is accurately described, its therapeutic properties are inventoried and the medical indications are listed, with the full description of the possible preparation of the medicament itself. In this work there are several references to the use of the perirenal fat of various animals as medicine for many diseases: “The pork fat and the fat of bear are prepared (so that it is suitable for medicine) in this way: take fresh and thick fat, as the renal one, put it into the abundant pluvial cold water … . From beef fat, take the renal and remove its membranes (skins) … . Bull fat is prepared in this way: take fresh perirenal fat, wash it in fluvial current … . All fat has warming power. Bull fat, like the fat of beef and calf, cures constipation … . Pork fat profits the diseases of uterus and anus and particularly the inflammations. The salted pork fat has, as more mature, a warmer and lenitive—palliative force, and, when it is washed with wine and mixed with ash or whitewash, it is curative for pleurisy and for various oedemas and inflammations … . The fat of bear appears to cause pilosity to the sufferers from alopecia and cures the chill-blain [frost bite]”[33.Wellmann M. editor 2.76.2.8 to 2.76.2.10, 5.4 to 5.5, 6.7 to 6.8, 17.1 to 17.2, 18.3 to 18.7, 18.10 to 19.1 (English translation from the original Greek text by the authors) Pedanii Dioscuridis Anazarbei de materia medica libri quinque Berlin, Weidmann. 1958Google Scholar]. Dioscorides also mentions the likely aphrodisiac faculties of the kidneys of “skigos,” a species of African lizard: “The lizard ‘skigos’: They say that when you drink wine with his kidneys and their meat diluted in it, in quantity of one drachma, it has aphrodisiac power. The intensification of sexual desire ceases when someone drinks lentil herbal tea with honey or sperm of lettuce with water”[34.Wellmann M. editor 2.66.1.1, 5 to 9 (English translation from the original Greek text by the authors) Pedanii Dioscuridis Anazarbei de materia medica libri quinque Berlin, Weidmann. 1958Google Scholar]. The early Byzantine doctor Orivasios reports the same, with more certainty, “Foods that arouse the sexual impetus: … From the kidneys and the surrounding meat of the lizard ‘skigos,’ a drink is prepared that intensifies the erection”[35.Raeder J. editor 4.105.2 to 4.105.3 (English translation from the original Greek text by the authors) Oribasii synopsis ad Eustathium et libri ad Eunapium. Corpus medicorum Graecorum Leipzig, Teubner. 1935Google Scholar]. Such and other attributes of the kidneys of various animals are reported in Cyranides, an Alexandrian apocryphal collection of the first and second centuries, written in Greek and Latin, that contains information on the real or hypothetical pharmacologic properties of several plants, animals, and mainly minerals. It was reputably based on ancient Egyptian and generally Eastern traditions: “About the fox: … The kidneys of this animal, when they are eaten or drunk in herbal tea, have an aphrodisiac force … . About the hedgehog: The elephantiasis and anasarka dropsy … are cured from the salted preparation of liver, kidneys and heart of this animal … . About the hare: … Its kidneys, when they are drained swindled, and sprinkled with pepper in a mixture of honey and water, create a drink that cures the nephritis … . About skigos: … The drink that is created by the end of his tail, his testicles and his kidneys, arouses the sexual impetuses … . About the billy goat: … his renal fat, when is boiled with groat or chyle of rice, is injected in the ears and profits them … . About the eagle: … The kidneys and his testicles, after they are drained and dissolved and sprinkled in aromatic wine, create a drink that causes erotic desire and biggest love in the one that will drink it, man or woman … . About the bird ‘otis’ [a species of goose]: … If somebody eats continuously, while fasting, the kidneys of ‘otis,’ his own kidneys will never ache”[35.Kaimakis D. editor 2.2.1, 2.2.25 to 2.2.26, 13l.1, 131.14 to 131.15, 24l.1, 241.14 to 241.16, 37.1, 37.4 to 37.5, 38.1, 38.13 to 38.14, 3.1.2, 3.1.2.62 to 3.1.2.64, 54.1, 54.3 to 54.4 (English translation from the original Greek text by the authors)Die Kyraniden Meisenheim am Glan, Hain. 1976Google Scholar]. From the above ancient Greek and Byzantine citations it is obvious that the secular and ritual use of kidneys by priests, doctors, and lay persons in the periods under discussion was widespread. Compared of course with the use of other organs, it should be considered rather more retained, with the exception of their sacrificial offering. The latter was based on the religious significance of the organ. The dietary consumption of the kidneys was limited by their function as urine producers. Their medicinal use was dictated firstly, by the abundance of the adipose tissue surrounding them, which was an ideal warming and binding substance. Second, it may be explained by the deeply rooted conviction that eating a particular organ (like the brain, the heart, the testicles, the kidneys) leads to the incorporation of its strength, thus protecting the corresponding eater's organs.