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The first ‘Hebrew’ teachers in Eretz Yisrael : characteristics, difficulties and coping methods (1881–1914)

2008; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 38; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/00467600701429071

1464-5130

Nirit Reichel,

Multilingual Education and Policy

Abstract The founding fathers of the new Jewish community in Eretz Yisrael (the Land of Israel, or Palestine) as well as many philosophers, public figures, educators and authors both in Israel and in the Diaspora were preoccupied with the image of the new Israeli Hebrew. The educational system was seen as an instrument to create the ‘new Hebrew’ (identifying with the ancient Hebrews) and to instil new values and behaviours in the young Palestinian‐born generation. During the first three decades (1981–1914) of Jewish education in Palestine, the typical teacher had neither pedagogical training nor prior experience in education, lacked the vocabulary for teaching subjects in Hebrew, and was familiar only with educational systems that differed from the one that she/he dreamed of creating. Individual teachers had no contact with one another and no institutionalised support system. They worked as ‘lone soldiers’, contending with a severe shortage of reference books, textbooks and reading material, struggling with the necessity to create a curriculum and set its priorities, and to translate and prepare material. Yet despite these tremendous difficulties, many educators did manage to realise their educational aims. What characterised these early teachers? What were the difficulties they faced? How did they manage to achieve their aims? This article attempts to answer these and other relevant questions. Keywords: ‘New Jew’first ‘Hebrew’ teachers in IsraelHebrew educationTeacher’s federationEducational AimsHebrew languageschool curriculumself‐efficacy Notes 1 The definition of the ‘first generation’ is based on Karl Manheim’s theory of the generational units, presented in K. Manheim, ‘The Problem of Generations’, in Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge. (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1962), 276–322. 2 E. Ben‐Yehuda, Complete Works of Ben Yehuda, Vol. 1. (Jerusalem: The Language Academy, 1941), 54 (in Hebrew). 3 On the problematic nature of yesterday’s generation moulding tomorrow’s youth, see E. Shils, ‘Ideology: The Concept and Function’, in International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Vol. 7, ed. D. L. Shills (New York: Macmillan and Free Press, 1982), 67. 4 I. Even‐Zohar, ‘The Emergence of a Native Hebrew Culture in Palestine: 1882–1948’, Studies in Zionism 4 (1981): 167–84 (in Hebrew). 5 Alpaim 2 (1990): 178–203 (in Hebrew). 6 Joshua A. Fishman, Language and Nationalism (Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1972). Joshua A. Fishman, Reversing Language Shift: Theoretical and Empirical Foundations of Assistance to Threatened Languages (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1981). 7 A. Shapira, New Jews, Old Jews (Tel Aviv: Am‐Oved, 1997). Y. Kimhi, ed., The Jubilee Book of the Teachers Federation (Jerusalem: Teachers Federation, 1929), 302–15, 383 (both in Hebrew). 8 S. Harmati, The Beginning of Hebrew Education in Israel and its Contribution to the Revival of the Language (Jerusalem: Reuven Mass Publishing, 1979), 21–23; 161–98 (in Hebrew). 9 D. Yudelevitz, ‘Fifty Years of Education in Rishon L’Tzion.’, Doar Yom, 14th Year, Issue 322, Elul. (1932) (in Hebrew). 10 Y. Ogen, ed., That Was (Tel Aviv: Ahdut Press, 1956), 27–49 (in Hebrew). 11 R. Bar Kol, ‘Inter‐personal Behavior and Success in Bringing About Change: Two Examinations of Examples of School Headmistresses’, Studies of Gender and Educational Organisation 21 (1997): 149–64. 12 E. Goldman, ‘The Significance of Leadership Style’, Educational Leadership 55, no. 7 (1998): 20–22. J. W. Irwin, Empowering Ourselves and Transforming Schools, Educators Making a Difference (Albany: New York State University Press, 1996). 13 A. Bandura, Self Efficacy – The Exercise of Control (New York: Freeman, 1997). 14 F. I. Pigge, and R. N. Marso ‘Outstanding Teacher’s Sense of Teacher Efficacy at Four Stages of Career Development’ (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association of Teacher Educators, Los Angeles, CA, 1993). 15 T.R. George, ‘Group Affective Tone’, in Handbook of Work Group Psychology (New York: Wiley, 1996), 77–94. H. Morgolis, and P. P. McCabe, ‘Self‐efficacy: A Key to Improving the Motivation of Struggling Learners’, The Clearing House 77 (2004): 241. 16 L. Ohnoutka et al., ‘Leadership, Teaching, Self Efficacy, and Networking’, Journal of Extension 43, no. 3 (2005). 17 Examples of the rich selection of biographies and autobiographies available: S. Hermati, Israel Halevi Teller – Grammarian & Reformer from the First Aliyah (Jerusalem: 1932). K. Y. Saliman, Personalities: David Yellin, Turov and Education (Tel Aviv: Ahdut Press, 1922). Yitzhak Ogen, ed., That Was (Ahdut Press: Tel Aviv, 1959). Y. Rickliss, ed., The Teacher (In memory of H. Wilkomitz) (Tel Aviv, 1959); Y. Twersky, ed., ‘Opinion & Deed’, in Education (Memorial Volume for Abraham Arnon) (Tel Aviv, 1963). S. Ernest, Margolin – Hebrew Educator (Jerusalem, 1940). H. A. Zuta, Starting Out (Jerusalem, 1938). H. A. Zuta, The Teacher’s Way, Memoirs (Tel Aviv: R. Mass, 1938). Levin, The First, ed. M. A. Beigel (Tel Aviv, 1936). J. Azerihu, Chapters of my Life (Tel Aviv, 1938). N. Turov, Chapters of my Life (Tel Aviv: Twersky, 1961). Levin‐Epstein, My Memories (Tel Aviv, 1932). All of these are in Hebrew. 18 D. Yudelevitz, ‘Memories of the Founders’, Jubilee Book of the Teachers Union 51, Histadrut Hamorim, (1929) (in Hebrew). A. Duryanov, Writings on the History of Hibat Zion and Settlement in the Land of Israel. (1932), 1012–22, 992–97 (Hebrew). A. Yellin, ‘In Israel’, in Jubilee Album of the Teachers Federation, Histadrut Ha‐morim, ed. D. Kimche and L. Riklis. (1953), 643–70 (in Hebrew). 19 M. Bar Lev, ‘Rabbi Zeev Yavetz as Herald of Religious‐National Education in the Land of Israel’, in On the Paths of Renewal B (1987), 91–110. Y. Dror, ‘The New Rural Education in the Lower Galilee at the Beginning of the Century’, in The Upper Galilee at the Beginning of the Century, ed. M. Naor (Jerusalem: Yad Ben Zvi, 1991), 56–68 (in Hebrew). 21 Y. Scali, ‘The Portrait of the Hebrew Teacher in the Settlements of the Second Aliyah, 1904–1914’, Cathedra 84 (1997): 143–71 (in Hebrew). 20 Z. Valk, ‘The Growth of National Education in the Settlements’, in The Book of the First Aliyah, ed. M. Eliav (Jerusalem, 1982), 407–25 (in Hebrew). 22 S. Karim, ‘The Hebrew‐National Teacher During the First Aliyah (1882–1913)’, Iyunim B’khinuch 2/2 (1995): 249–68 (in Hebrew). N. G. Kheimets and A. D. Apstein, ‘Confronting the Languages of Statehood: Theoretical and Historical Frameworks for the Analysis of the Multilingual Identity of Russian Jewish Intelligentsia in Israel’, Language Problems and Language Planning 25, no. 2 (2001): 125–43. 23 Y. Shtaiman, ‘The Creation of the Image of the Hebrew Child as Part of Cultural Planning in the Land of Israel at the Beginning of the 20th Century’ (PhD diss., University of Tel Aviv, 2002) (in Hebrew). 24 M. Eliav, The Land of Israel and its Settlements in the 19th Century (Jerusalem: Keter Publishing, 1978), 210–305. M. Rinot, ‘Ideology and Education: The Controversy over Questions of Culture at the Zionist Congresses of 1897–1913 and its Influence on the Design of Education in the Land of Israel’, Iyunim B’khinukh 9 (1975): 27–38. (All in Hebrew). 25 Y. Faran, ‘Schools in the Settlements of the Lower Galilee – Sejera, Yavniel, Meskha, Menachamia – From Their Establishment to the Capture of Eretz Yisrael by the British (1918)’, Dor L’dor 25 (2005): 173–209 (in Hebrew). Y. Lang ‘A Stormy Chapter in the History of Education in Petakh Tikva, 1914–1919’, Dor Le’dor 25 (2005): 29–83 (in Hebrew). 26 B. Kimmerling, ‘The Jewish Israeli Secularism and its Origins’, in Immigrant, Settlers, Natives (Tel‐Aviv: Am Oved, 2004), 337–369 (in Hebrew). 27 Y. Epstein, ‘With No Training’, in The Anniversary Album of the Teacher’s Union 1903–1928, ed. D. Kimhi (Jerusalem, 1929) (in Hebrew). 28 Nirit Reichel, ‘Between Naivete and Cultural Horizons – The Role of General Education in Hebrew Education in the Land of Israel – 1882–1935’ (PhD diss., University of Tel Aviv, 1994) (in Hebrew). Y. Epstein, ‘With No Education’, in Jubilee Yearbook of the Teachers Federation, ed. D. Kimche (1929), 146–150 (in Hebrew). 29 B. Spolsky, and E. Shohamy, The Language of Israel: Policy, Ideology and Practice (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, Centre for Applied Linguistics (CAL), 1999). B. Spolsky, and E. Shohamy, ‘Hebrew After a Century of RLS Efforts’, in Can Threatened Languages be Saved?, ed. Joshua A. Fishman (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, Centre for Applied Linguistics, 2001), 350–64. 30 S. Hermati, The Beginnings of Hebrew Education in Israel and its Contribution to the Revival of the Language (Jerusalem: Danny Mass, 1979) (in Hebrew). 31 Hermati The Beginnings of Hebrew Education in Israel. 32 Yuval Dror, ‘The New Rural Schools in the Settlements of the Lower Galilee at the Beginning of the Century’, in The Upper Galilee at the Beginning of the Century, ed. M. Naor (Jerusalem: Yad Ben Zvi, 1991), 56–68 (in Hebrew). 33 A summary of Epstein’s life can be found in S. Hermati, Three First Teachers (Jerusalem: Danny Mass, 1985). Y. Epstein, ‘Hebrew Speaking and How to Widen its Use’, Research in the Psychology of Language and Education 252 (1985): 240–52. A short biography of Wilkomitz can be found in Hermati, The Beginnings of Hebrew Education in Israel, 292–93. 34 Y. Epstein, ‘Jewish Education’, in The Library of the Founders, ed. Y. Horgin, No. 8 (Tel Aviv, 1943). Y. Dror, ‘The New Rural Schools’. S. Levi, ‘The Influence of Ideology and Social Life During the Second Aliyah. The Role of the Hebrew Teacher 1904–1911’ (PhD diss., Bar Ilan University, 2002). Y. Lang, ‘Educational Workers in Educational Institutions in the Land of Israel, 1881–1904’, Cathedra 90: 169–82. 35 R. Elboim‐Dror, ‘To Push the Stone to the Top of the Hill and to Roll It Down Again: The Beginning of Historiography of Education in Eretz Yisrael’, Iyyunim B’tkumat Yisrael 9 (1999): 1–36 (in Hebrew). 36 Elboim‐Dror, ‘To Push the Stone to the Top of the Hill’. 37 Ibid. 38 This division is widely accepted in the relevant literature. See, for example, Y. Azariyahu, ‘Jewish Education in Palestine’, in Jubilee Album of the Teachers Federation, 1893–1908 (Jerusalem: Teachers’ Federation, 1909). R. Elboim‐Dror, Jewish Education in Palestine (Jerusalem: Yad Ben Zvi, 1986) (in Hebrew) accepts this division, but calls the ‘ingathering’ period the ‘borrowed authority’ period, after the central characteristic of the period, the concentration of educational authority in the hands of the Teachers’ Federation. 39 R. Elboim‐Dror, Hebrew Education in the Land of Israel (Jerusalem: Yad Ben Zvi, 1986) (in Hebrew). 40 Y. Kimhi, ed., The Jubilee Album of the Teachers Federation (Jerusalem: Histadrut Hamorim, 1929), 302–15, 383 (in Hebrew). 41 These and other biographies and autobiographies present a basis for discussion in the article: S. Teller‐Hermati, Israel Halevi Teller‐Grammarian and Reformer of the First Aliyah (Jerusalem, 1932). K. Y. Yellin‐Saliman, Personalities: David Yellin, Turov and Education (1922). D. Yellin, Selected Writings (Jerusalem, 1926). Y. Erlich‐Ogen, ed., Asher That Was (Tel Aviv: Ahdut Press, 1959). Y. Wilkomitz‐ Rickless, ed., The Teacher: In Memory of H. Wlikomitz (Tel Aviv, 1959). Y.H.A. Zuta‐ Zuta, Starting Out (Jerusalem, 1938). Y. H. A. Zuta, The Teacher’s Way (Jerusalem: R. Mass, 1938) and many others. All are in Hebrew. 42 A very useful source for background knowledge and for condensed biographies is: D. Tadhor, ed., The Encyclopaedia of Pioneers of Pre‐state Israel. Volumes 1–19 (Tel Aviv: Self‐published, 1948–1971), and the three anniversary volumes published by the Histadrut Hamorim Teachers Federation: D. Riklis, ed., Jubilee Album of the Teachers Federation (Jerusalem: Histadrut Hamorim, 1929). D. Riklis and Y. Kimche, Jubilee Album of the Teacher’s Federation (Jerusalem: Histadrut Hamorim, 1954). M. Ahimeir, and H. Beer, eds., Ninety Years of the Teachers Federation (Jerusalem: Am Oved, 1992) (All in Hebrew.) 43 P. Thompson, The Voice of the Past: Oral History (Plandome, NY: Opus Books, 1988). M. Linton, ‘Transformation of Memory in Everyday Life’, in Memory Observed: Remembering in Natural Context (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1982). U. Neisser, ‘Nested Structure In Autobiographical Memory’. W. F. Brewer, ‘What is Autobiographical Memory’, in Autobiographical Memory, ed. D. C. Rubin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). M. Ben Peretz, ‘Biographical Research: Memories of Teachers After Their Retirement’, in Traditions and Streams in Qualitative Research, ed. G. Ben Yehoshua (Tel Aviv: Dvir, 2001) (in Hebrew). 44 P. Woods, ‘Life Histories and Teacher Knowledge’, in Education: Teachers Changing the Nature of Pedagogical Knowledge (London: Falmer Press, 1987), 121–35. 45 L. Stenhouse, ‘Case Study in Comparative Education: Particularity and Generalisation’, Comparative Education 15, no. 1 (1979): 5–10. 46 J.A. Robertson, ‘Autobiographical Memory: A Historical Prologue’, in Autobiographical Memory, ed. D. C. Rubin (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). 47 R. Butt and D. Raymond ‘Autobiographic Praxis: Studying the Formation of Teacher’s Knowledge’, Journal of Curriculum Theorising 7, no. 4 (1988): 87–164. S. Middleton, ‘Developing Radical Pedagogy: Autobiography of a New Zealand Sociologist of Women’s Education’, in Studying Teacher’s Lives, ed. I. F. Goodson (New York, 1992). 48 A. Liblich, R. Tuval‐Mashiach and T. Zilber, Narrative Research: Reading, Analysis and Interpretation (Thousand Oaks, CA Sage, 1998). 49 A. Strauss and G. Corbin, Basics of Qualitative Research (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1990). B. Glazer, and A. I. Strauss, The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research (Chicago, IL: Aldine, 1967). 50 A. Azariyu, ‘Hebrew Education in the Land of Israel’, in The Jubilee Album of the Teachers Federation, 1928, 57, 63. M. Bar Lev, ‘Rabbi Zeev Yavitz as a Harbinger of National Religious Education’, B’shvilei Ha’Tchiya, B (1987): 91–110. Z. Yavitz, ‘About Educating the Farmers in the Land of Israel’, Haaretz (1891): 57–63. ‘Letter from a Teacher in a School in Jaffa’, Hamelitz 40 (1939). Y. Epstein, ‘Important Instructions for the Beginning of the School Year’, Hashkafa 2, no. 4. (All of these are in Hebrew.) 51 Minutes of the Second General Assembly of Teachers in Gedera, Aviezer Jewish Education Archives, Tel Aviv University (in Hebrew). 52 Ogen, Asher, That Was, 23, 24. 53 Y. Dror, National Education, The Zionist Case (Jerusalem: Magnes. 2006). S. Almog, ‘Pioneering as an Alternative Culture’, Zion 3 (1993) (in Hebrew). 54 A. Yellin, ‘The Histadrut, Its Organisation and Projects’, in The Jubilee Album, ed. Y. Kimche, (1929), 398–99 (in Hebrew). 55 Lewis Glinert, ‘The First Conference for Hebrew, or When Is Congress Not a Congress?’, in The Earliest Stage of Language Planning: The ‘First Congress’ Phenomenon, ed. J. Fishman (Berlin–New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1986), 85–115. 56 S. Yavnieli, ‘Generations’. H. Zuta, ‘At the Top of the Mountain’, in The Jubilee Album A, ed. Y. Kimche (1929), 217, 112–29. M. Carmon, ‘The Teachers Federation and the Problem of Education in the Pre‐State Period’, in The Jubilee Album B, ed. Y. Riklis (1956), 417–28. (All in Hebrew.) 57 Y. Aushpitz, ‘In the Footsteps of those who Paved the Way’. Y. Azaryahu, ‘Hebrew Education in the Land of Israel’, in The Jubilee Album A. (1929), 72–81; S. Azaryahu, Autobiography, My Life History (The Beginning of My Work in the Land of Israel) (Tel Aviv, 1968). Y. Harrari, Among the Vineyards (Tel Aviv: Dvir, 1938). (All in Hebrew.) 58 I. Ogen, ed., Asher Erlich: The Man and his Work (Tel Aviv, 1939), 27–29. M. Karniel, Mesha’im. Kfar Tabor (1988). Y. Pichman, ‘Man’, in The Story of the Herzliyah Gymnasium, ed. Ben Yehuda (Tel Aviv, 1970). For example, see A. Hochman, ‘A School Trip to Syria’, in Jubilee Album of the Hebrew Gymnasium in Jerusalem, ed. C. Merchavia (Jerusalem, 1942), 178. Y. Tsur, ‘Eton and Trips’, in Jubilee Album of Hebrew Gymnasium: 174–77. (All in Hebrew.) 59 Azaryahu, Autobiography. Antebi, Notebook I with Autobiography. Unpublished. S. Laskov, ‘Kol Koreh’, in The Life and Times of Yosef Vitkin (Tel Aviv: University of Tel Aviv, 1986). Y. Dror, National Education (Jerusalem: Bialik Institute, 2006). Part 2, Chapter 15 details the common characteristics of the core curriculum. (All in Hebrew.) 60 Y. Azaryahu, ‘The Hebrew Education in the Land of Israel’, in The Jubilee Album, 57–71. Elboim Dror, Hebrew Education in the Land of Israel A, 131–86. (All in Hebrew.) 61 Y. Epstein, ‘Without Training’, in Jubilee Album of the Teachers Federation, 1893–1908 (Jerusalem: Teachers’ Federation), 103–08. ‘First Memories’ in Jubilee Album of the Teachers Federation, 151. (All in Hebrew.) 62 Epstein, ‘Without Training’, 146–50. ‘First Memories’, 151; Zuta, ‘At the Top of the Mountain’. (All in Hebrew.) 63 N. Nardi, Jubilee Album of the Teachers Federation, Vol. 2 (1956), 394 (in Hebrew). 64 Eliezer Ben Yehuda (1858–1922) was born in Latvia and immigrated to Palestine, in 1880. He is considered the reviver of the Hebrew language. He wrote for newspapers in Hebrew and published his own Hebrew newspaper, Hatzvi (The Gazelle). Together with the teacher, David Yellin, he established the Committee for the Hebrew Language in 1880. A. Even‐Zohar, ‘The Growth and Development of Local and Native Hebrew Culture in Israel: 1882–1948’, Cathedra 16, Jerusalem (in Hebrew). 65 Nardi, Jubilee Album of the Teachers Federation, Vol. 2, as well as the biographies noted in Footnotes 6–11 above (in Hebrew). 66 Madad Grazovsky (1862–1950) was born in Minsk and immigrated to Palestine in 1887. Between 1887 and 1905 he was a Hebrew teacher in Israel. He wrote textbooks in Hebrew and translated books, primarily for children. He edited a children’s newspaper, participated in editing letters from Palestine that described Hebrew schools in addition to other subjects, and became famous for his work in the field of Hebrew lexicography. Y. Pogrovinsky, Yehudah Gur‐Gorzovsky. Kiryat‐Sefer (1952–3), 110–20. Yehudah Gorzovsky, Man of Courage, Library of the Founders. Association of the Second Generation of the Yishuv, A, Booklet B (in Hebrew). 67 M. D. D. (Y. Grazovsky) From the Land of Israel Vol. I. (1927) (in Hebrew). 68 The ‘Ezra’ Society was a German‐Jewish organisation that established educational institutions in Palestine with a German orientation. For details, see M. Rinot, The Ezra Society of German Jews in Creativity and in Struggle (Jerusalem: 1971) (in Hebrew). 69 Alliance – The Society of Kol Yisrael Haverim (All Israel are Friends) was established in France as the first international organisation of its kind for Jews. It was established in Paris in 1860 (its name in French was Alliance). Its goal was to defend all Jews wherever they might be persecuted and to struggle for a broadening of emancipation for Jews, to contribute to their cultural development and to encourage productive work and agriculture among them. Their slogan was ‘All of Israel are responsible to one another’. The slogan expresses mutual responsibility and the readiness to grant aid and mutual support. The society was also active in education and established schools, the first of which was in Morocco (1862). In these schools, in addition to the general curriculum, various professional skills were taught in order to provide students with a way of earning their living. For additional information: see A. Rodrig, Education, Society and History: Kol Yisrael Haverim and the Mediterranean Countries (Jerusalem: Yad Ben Zvi, 1991) (in Hebrew). 70 The English Friends Organisation – an organisation that operated for the benefit of the Jews of Palestine and was supported by the British branch of the Rothschild family. Their activities in education focused on the Evelina de Rothschild School in Jerusalem. For further information, see: M. Eliav, The Land of Israel and its Settlements in the 19th Century (Jerusalem: Keter, 1978), 214–15, 392–95, 398, 405 (in Hebrew). 71 The existence of ‘external students’ who prepared themselves for the matriculation exams was widespread in Eastern Europe because of the numerus clausus, which allowed only a small number of Jews to study in universities and gymnasia. 72 Y. Aushpiz, ‘Following the Solelim’, in Jubilee Album of the Teachers Federation, Vol. 1, 130 (in Hebrew). 73 ‘Fifty Years of Education in Rishon Lezion’, Archive A/192/140/1 (1967). M. Lubman, The Man and his Work (Tel Aviv). S. Hermati, Israel Halevi Teller, Educator and Reformer of the First Wave of Immigration (Jerusalem, 1932). (All in Hebrew.) 74 The personal diaries of David Antebi, personal archive of his son, Kibbutz Ayelet Hashachar. 75 K. Y. Sliman, People: David Yellin, Turov and Education, (Jerusalem: 1922), 186. I. Ogen, ed., What Was (Tel Aviv: Achdut Press, 1959). Y. Ricklis, ed. The Teacher (In Memory of C. Wilkomitz) (Tel Aviv: Twersky, 1959). Y. Twersky, ed., Opinion and Practice in Education (Memorial to Avraham Arnon). (Tel Aviv, 1963). (All in Hebrew.) 76 D. Yudelvitz, ed., Jubilee Album of Rishon Letzion: 1882–1941. S. Ernst, Yishai Adler: His Life and Work (Jerusalem, 1881). H. A. Zuta, At the Beginning of My Path (Jerusalem, 1934). H. A. Zuta, The Ways of a Teacher: Memories of R. Mass (1938). (All in Hebrew.) 77 Examples of the lack of vocabulary and expressions can be found in: S. Hermati, The Beginning of Hebrew Education and its Contribution to the Revival of the Language (Jerusalem: Reuven Mass, 1979), 21–22; 46–49; 51–55; 78 (in Hebrew). 78 N. Reichel, ‘Reference Books as Agents of General Education at the Beginning of Hebrew Education in the Land of Israel’, Galei Iyun U’mechkar 12 (Katzrin: Ohalo, 2003) (in Hebrew). 79 Zuta, ‘At the Top of the Mountain’, 112–17. D.M. Shuv, ‘The First Schools in the Upper Galilee’, in The Jubilee Album, 156–58. N. Reichel, ‘Reading Books as Important Agents of General Education of the ‘Second Generation’ at the Beginning of Hebrew Education in the Land of Israel (1890–1935)’, Dor L’dor, 12 (Tel Aviv: Ramot, 2000). (All in Hebrew.) 80 On the first Hebrew readers in Palestine and the first textbooks, see U. Ofek, Hebrew Children’s Literature 1900–1948, Vol. 1 (Tel Aviv: University of Tel Aviv, 1988) (in Hebrew). 81 D. D. Grazovsky, ‘From the Land of Israel.’ (5) ‘Schools in the Settlements’, Hashiloach 4, Booklets 19–24. 1988–1989: 263, 266–68 (in Hebrew). 82 ‘Aims of the Teachers’ Federation and the Means to Achieve Them (Summary of a Lecture Sent to the Teachers’ Federation Centre)’, in Jubilee Album of the Teachers Federation, 1893–1908, 382 (in Hebrew). 83 According to the report of the Zionist Executive Board in Palestine, 1928: Elementary and High School Education, in 1903 there were two Jewish elementary schools in cities and seven in villages, some of which had completed their first year of operation. In addition, there were two independent preparatory classes for gymnasia. In 1913–1914 there were 10 Jewish elementary schools in Tel Aviv and Jaffa, Jerusalem and Haifa, three Jewish gymnasia and 14 small elementary schools in villages. In 1919–1920 there were 137 elementary schools, of these 71 were Jewish elementary schools in cities, mainly Tel Aviv/Jaffa, Haifa, Jerusalem, Tiberias and Safed, and the rest in moshavot in Judea and the Galilee. 84 For the opening of the first gymnasium, see: B. Ben Yehuda, The Story of Gymnasia Herzliya (Tel Aviv: Gymnasia Herzliya, 1970), 10–26 (in Hebrew). 85 Elboim‐Dror, Hebrew Education in Israel, 375–87; N. Reichel, ‘The Image of the Desirable Israeli Pupil, 1889– 1933’, Cathedra 14 (April, 1997) (in Hebrew). 86 Ben, Yehuda, The Story of Gymnasia Herzliya, 27–37, 51–53, 83–95 (in Hebrew). 87 The first college for training Jewish teachers in Palestine was founded in 1904. It was directed by Ephraim Cohen Reis and based on the form of Prussian colleges. The students of the college studied, like their counterparts in Germany, 36 weekly hours for five years. The Christian studies that were customary in the Prussian teaching colleges were replaced with Jewish religious studies. The second teachers college founded in Palestine was the first Hebrew‐National College, established in 1913 in Jaffa and known as the A. L. Levinsky Memorial College for School and Preschool Teachers in Tel Aviv. It served women only (unlike the Ezra College which was only open to men) and Dr Nissan Turov was recruited to direct it. The third teachers’ college in Palestine was the Hebrew Teachers’ College in Jerusalem. It was directed by David Yellin, was open for men and women students and accepted its first students a year after the college in Tel Aviv (in 1914). 90 ‘The Protocol of the General Assembly of Zichron Yaacov (1903)’, in The Jubilee Album, A, 383–97 (in Hebrew). 88 Kimhi, The Anniversary Album, 1903–1928, 385 (in Hebrew). 89 M. Carmon, ‘The Teacher’s Federation and the Problem of Education in the Yishuv (Jewish Settlements)’, Jubilee Album B, 418–22. Elboim‐Dror, Hebrew Education, 206–40. N. Reichel, ‘Personal Versions of the General Curriculum. The Role of General Humanistic Education in the First Curricula of Hebrew Schools in Israel (1882–1907)’, Dor L’Dor (2006). S. Levy, ‘The Effects of Ideological and Social Changes during the Second Aliyah on the Functions of the Hebrew Teacher, 1904–1911’, (PhD diss., Bar Ilan University, 2002). (All in Hebrew.) 91 ‘The Protocol of the First General Assembly’, in The Jubilee Album, 385 (in Hebrew). 92 Dror, National Education, Chapter 2: ‘The Common Denominator of the Core Curriculum’. Reichel, ‘Personal Versions’, Dor L’dor (in Hebrew). 93 Y. Azaryahu, Chapters of My Life (Tel Aviv, 1951) (in Hebrew). 94 Y. Aushpitz, ‘In the Footsteps’, in The Jubilee Album, A, 134. ‘Report of the Comptroller’s Committee of Schools “Return Letter” 1–3, 1909’, Archives of Jewish Education in Israel and in the Diaspora, University of Tel Aviv (in Hebrew). 95 Aushpitz, ‘In the Footsteps’. 96 H. Y. Zuta, ‘At the Mountain Top’, in Jubilee Album, 14–15 (in Hebrew). 97 A. Carmon, ‘Past and Present’, in Jubilee Album of the Hebrew Gymnasium in Jerusalem, ed C. Merchavia (Jerusalem: 1972) (in Hebrew). 98 N. Reichel, ‘Social Education Bridging the Ideological Gaps in the Creation of the Image of the Desirable Graduate: The Story of the Gymnasiums (1906–1948)’, Dor L’dor, 24. (Tel Aviv: Ramot) (in Hebrew). 99 Yehuda Antebi left behind diaries and an autobiography. The diaries, which were written from 1908 to 1941, were kept by his family in their personal archives. The diaries I was given to read by his son who was a teacher in Kibbutz Ayelet Hashachar, the late Shlomi Shacher, were written between 1908 and 1925. Some of the diary notebooks are missing and were apparently burned in 1948 during the War of Independence. Not all of the diaries are paged, and most entries specify the dates they were written, some with full dates and others partially dated. Stories about Yehuda Antebi, testimony and descriptions of his educational activities can be found in the archives of the town of Kfar Tavor and in two books written by residents of the town that include documentation and photocopies of documents: M. Karniel, Stories of Kfar Tavor (Kfar Tavor, 1988); and S. Gal‐on, The Land of the Real Farmers (Kfar Tavor, published by the author, 2002). Both are in Hebrew. 100 Notebook I, Last part + Autobiography binding (in Hebrew). 101 Notebook 1. Autobiography (in Hebrew). 102 Karniel, Stories of Kfar Tavor, 97–100. Gal‐on, The Land of the Real Farmers, 212–218. 103 N. Reichel, ‘Image of the Desirable Pupil’, Cathedra 14 (1997), 55–96; Notebook 1, 1st of Adar (March), 1908, 11th of Nissan (April), 1909 (in Hebrew). 104 Notebook I, 24th of Sivan (May) 1908, 3rd of Tishrei (September) 1909.