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The Catholic Mission, Sport and Renewal of Elites: St Michel de Tananarive Jesuit College (1906–1975)

2011; Routledge; Volume: 28; Issue: 12 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/09523367.2011.592757

1743-9035

Évelyne Combeau-Mari,

Vietnamese History and Culture Studies

Abstract The emblem of Jesuit ambition was St. Michel College, built in the heart of the capital in ‘fortress’ style proclaiming the educational plan for training the country’s elites. Our intention here is to show how, within the specific framework of this Catholic establishment, the disciplinary, associative and identitary functions of gymnastics and sports played their part from the 1920s in the training and renewal of Malagasy elites, and accompanied the process of decolonisation. Over seven decades, the establishment developed evolving, pragmatic and even opportunistic strategies which were above all adaptations of policy with a view to consolidating its position in Malagasy society. Thus, in order to reinforce its opposition to the Protestant missions, the establishment initially relied on help from the coloniser. From 1906, in a political context sustained by anti-clericalism and the promotion of secular education, the Catholic missions took deeper root in Malagasy demands. Keywords: Catholic MissionSt. Michel de Tananarive Jesuit Collegesporteducation of elitesdecolonisation Notes 1. Boudou, Madagascar, la mission de Tananarive, 23. 2. See the unpublished journal of Father Finaz, cited by Reverend Father Malzac, Histoire du royaume Hova, and Hübsch, ‘Difficultés des missions catholiques à Madagascar [1820–1861]’, 241–51. 3. According to Father Tiersonnier, ‘the building with its fortress air seemed rather anachronistic in the context of the time. The builders had certainly endowed it with impressive dimensions. … Veterans recalled the skill of the builders with great pride;they had seen them at work and knew the rather rudimentary means they had put to such good use.’ Tiersonnier, Au cœur de l’île rouge, 50 ans de vie à Madagascar, 20. 4. De Torquat, Le collège St Michel, Antananarivo 1888–1988, 4. 5. The Reformation was a Protestant movement of reaction and religious contestation which challenged universities and education. See Piard, Education physique et sport, petit manuel d’histoire élémentaire. 6. The Roman College, a unique teacher training school, was created in 1550. Its internal organisation was defined by regulations called the Ratio and the teaching syllabus by a choice of didactic works. 7. For the pedagogy developed by the Jesuits, see De Dainville, Les Jésuites et l’éducation de la société française. La naissance de l’humanisme moderne. 8. On the nature/culture problem in Jesuit pedagogy, see Ulmann, La nature et l’éducation, 60–1. 9. The first generation of Malagasy elites, essentially Merina and from the capital, was educated at the Protestant school. It emerged during the VVS affair and asserted itself in the nationalist movement in 1947. See Combeau-Mai, ‘The Protestant Mission and Youth Movements’. 10. Radama II, King of the Imerina, ceded a lakeside plot of around ten hectares to the Jesuit fathers in 1862. 11. On these issues see Raison-Jourde, ‘Dérives constantiniennes et querelles religieuses [1869–1883]’, 277–94. 12. In 1895, 6,777 pupils were enrolled in 13 Catholic schools, 53 schools of the London Missionary Society, 4 of the French Foreign Association, 9 Anglican schools and 2 Norwegian schools. De Torquat, Le collège St Michel. Antananarivo 1888–1988, 8. 13. Rules of the Society of Jesus boarding school, Collegium et convictis societatis Jesu, 1849–1850, a duplicate of the regulations of the colleges and boarding schools of the province of Toulouse, which included Antananarivo. St Michel College archives at St Paul Theological College, Antananarivo. 14. General Gallieni sought to turn Madagascar into a model colony able to attract an influx of French settlers in search of land and profits. 15. Instructions from Governor-General Gallieni No. 812, Official Gazette dated 20 June 1903. 16. General Gallieni granted the Jesuits a 4 hectare plot in the city of Antananarivo for the construction of a French-language college on 1 November 1896. The new establishment of Amparibe was opened in 1898. De Torquat, Le collège St Michel, Antananarivo 1888–1988. 17. Unpublished letter from General Gallieni to Le Myre de Vilers, 25 April 1898. Quoted by Vidal, La séparation des églises et de l’Etat. 18. The French laws of 1901 challenging the role of religious orders in education were not applied in Madagascar until the arrival of Governor Augagneur in 1906. 19. Appointed Governor-General in replacement of General Gallieni in November 1905. He held the post until 1910. A Socialist, highly influential Freemason and former mayor of Lyon, Victor Augagneur was fiercely anti-clerical. See Vigen and Tronchon, ‘Dynamisme ecclésial et affrontements [1896–1913]’, 325–45. 20. See note 6 by Laurence Ink in Paulhan, Lettres de Madagascar 1907–1910, 70. 21. With his Polytechnique education, its attendant prestige and his personal worth, the positions taken by Monsignor de Saune were of great influence in Catholic circles. 22. Victor Augagneur succeeded in curbing the religious orders, despite the principle of free religious expression defined by the constitution of the Third Republic and the Convention of Zanzibar signed on 5 August 1890 by France and Great Britain. Victor Augagneur was haunted by what he called the danger of ‘Ethiopianism’, a church entirely in the hands of the indigenous population. He endeavoured to stifle any stirrings of autonomy in the Malagasy. In 1906 he ordered the closure of all schools held in churches. See Vigen and Tronchon, ‘Dynamisme ecclésial et affrontements [1896–1913]’. 23. On these questions see Arnaud, Le militaire, l’écolier, le gymnaste, naissance de l’éducation physique en France [1869–1889]. 24. La Mission de Madagascar, 6, December 1913, Vicariat de Tananarive, 103–4. 25. Colin and Suau, Madagascar et la mission catholique, 95. 26. Victoire Rasoamanarivo, beatified by John-Paul II in 1989, was the driving force behind this young women's movement, along with her sister Angélina Ranjavelo; they belonged to the family of Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony. Lupo, ‘L’entre-deux-guerres franco-malgache [1883–1895]’, in Hübsch, Madagascar et le christianisme, 299–305. 27. See Combeau-Mari, ‘Vitality of Associations and the Expansion of Sport’. 28. On the departure of Governor-General Augagneur, succeeded by Governor-General Albert Picquié who stayed on until 1914. 29. See Combeau-Mari, ‘The Protestant Mission and Youth Movements’. 30. Ralaimihoatra, Histoire de Madagascar, 250. 31. See Combeau-Mari, ‘The Protestant Mission and Youth Movements’. Reverend Ravelojaona was considered the spiritual father of the movement, with his charisma and influence over the young. 32. The son of Ignace Manifatra, grandson of King Linta and nephew of Father Basilide Rahidy, he studied at the apostolic school of Bordeaux after a stay in Reunion Island. It is worth noting that the mission's superiors [Europeans] appointed the young Malagasy scholastic to Ambohipo on his return from Europe, thus showing the importance they attached to the orientation of training and teaching at the new College. In 1893, Father Vénance, now a priest, returned to the College to teach the 1st class and Latin. De Torquat, Le collège St Michel, Antananarivo 1888–1988, 5. 33. The Apostolic Vicar of Madagascar at that time. 34. A French protectorate from 1841. 35. On 16 February, the court handed down 8 sentences of hard labour for life, 26 of 15 to 20 years and 7 acquittals. Among the sentenced featured Robin and Ravoahangy, the future standard-bearers of Malagasy nationalism. Reverend Ravelojaona also received a life sentence, but was acquitted in May 1916 after retractions by Robin. He exiled himself to France and joined the French army. In 1921, a general amnesty gradually saw the prisoners released. They made up the most active core of Malagasy nationalism until 1947. Koerner, Madagascar: colonisation française et nationalisme malgache au XXème siècle, 171. 36. Rajaonah, ‘Les élites malgaches d’Antananarivo et l’émergence d’un nationalisme moderne: l’organisation secrète Vy, Vato, Sakelika’, 319–46. See also Randriamandimby-Ravoahangy-Andrianavolona, ‘La VVS, Vy, Vato, Sakelika, contribution à l’étude sur le nationalisme malgache’, and the Master's Dissertation by Eléonore Randrianatsimbazafy, ‘La VVS dans le pays Betsileo’, U. of Aix en Provence. 37. The Administration specified that they had to be civil servants. 38. Letter dated September 1921, from Director of Native Affairs Berthier to the Head of the College. Bulletin de l’ASM, 1, 1922, St Michel College Archives at St Paul Theological College, Antananarivo. 39. Extract from the speech made by Joseph Rajoelina, President of the St Michel Association, on 26 December 1921. Bulletin de l’ASM, 1. 40. Gergaud, ‘La formation d’une élite malgache au collège Saint Michel de 1888 à nos jours’, 103. 41. The students of the medical school were the precursors of the nationalist movement and were remarkable for their participation in VVS. Rajaonah, ‘Les élites malgaches d’Antananarivo et l’émergence d’un nationalisme moderne: l’organisation secrète Vy, Vato, Sakelika’, 319–46. 42. Extracts from the speech made by Father Delom on 16 October 1921. Bulletin de l’ASM, 1. 43. Membership reached 489 in 1925. 44. Bulletin de l’ASM, 3, 1924. 45. Bulletin de l’ASM, 2, 1923. 46. Published in the Official Gazette of 9 June 1923. See the newspaper Afon Dasy, feu de camp, 1954, CAOM, POM 957/B. The first administrative board was made up as follows: President: Mr Trouve, sub-agent for the Compagnie Lyonnaise de Madagascar, Vice-president: R. P. du Mas de Peysac; Secretary: Adolphe de Guiran, Chief Secretary of the Public Prosecutor's office; Treasurer, Mr De La Hogue, chief accountant at the Madagascar Credit Foncier; Consultant: Mr Verdier, book-keeper. The venture met with some reticence on the part of the local mission. Father Sevin's perseverance was decisive. In May 1923 he sent Father du Mas a letter appointing him district delegate for Antananarivo, along with his chaplain's card, books and insignia. He also wrote Monsignor de Saune a very persuasive letter, supported by a recommendation from H. E. Cardinal Dubois, Archbishop of Paris. See the newspaper Afon Dasy, feu de camp, 1954. 47. See Delval, ‘Les débuts du mouvement Scout et notamment du guidisme à Madagascar’, 289. 48. Founder of the Scouts of France movement in 1920. See Laneyrie, ‘Les Scouts de France entre les deux guerres. Idéologie, prescriptions et pratiques pédagogiques’, 175–84. 49. There were 16 of them initially. André and Louis Prévost, Guy and Roger Nialeau, René Motais de Narbonne, René Luchucène, Charles and Noël Thébault, Raymond and Charles Vergoz, Raymond Pichon de Bury, Raymond Lacouture, Charles and Maurice Bénard, Jean and Maurice Monclar, Guy Boyer. Afon Dasy, feu de camp, 1954. 50. Ibid. 51. Association report, meeting of 23 September 1923. Bulletin de l’ASM, 3, 1924. 52. Created by Victor Augagneur in 1908, the state school was named ‘Lycée Condorcet’ in 1918 and ‘Lycée Gallieni’ in 1924. It is now known as Lycée Andohalo. 53. A man of experience, Léon Cayla took up his post as Governor-General on 2 May 1930. On arrival he expressed his point of view in no uncertain terms in a speech delivered at the residence: ‘I give to those who seek to compromise them [our affection and concern] this first and final warning. I would like to be able to leave the matter there, but I am ready to act as quickly and vigorously as necessary, in the knowledge that such is my duty, and that to do so is to act in the higher interests of our country.’ Cayla immediately confined Ravoahangy and Ralaimango to residence at Maintirano and Port Bergé. He began his governorship by voting for the decree on violation of press laws. Ralaimihoatra, Histoire de Madagascar, 262. 54. Lhande, Notre épopée missionnaire, Madagascar 1832–1932,18. 55. Patriotic commitment characterised the personality of Bernard de Gevigney. Father Tiersonnier rediscovered it in 1944 on the field of battle. After leaving the island in 1943, he served as chaplain to France's second Armoured Division which had just cleared the approaches to Strasbourg. On recovering from a recent shrapnel wound to the face he prepared for the attack on Berchtesgaden, ‘Hitler's eagle's nest’. Tiersonnier, Madagascar, les missionnaires acteurs du développement, 37. 56. Father de Gevigney displayed noteworthy animosity towards the Freemasons and an aversion for Communism, which was becoming widespread among Malagasy intellectuals in the late 1930s. The Communist Party of the Region of Madagascar [PCRM] was constituted in August 1936. Randrianja, Le Parti communiste de la région de Madagascar 1930–1939. 57. De Torquat, Le collège St Michel, Antananarivo 1888–1988, 86. 58. Letter from Governor-General Cayla to the Father-Rector dated 4 September 1934. St Michel College Archives at St Paul Theological College, Antananarivo. The schools policy of Léon Cayla, which was based chiefly on the dominant role of the French language in learning, broke with the strictly secular mark left by his predecessors. 59. The European pupils did not have the same school calendar as the Malagasy pupils. The former began their school year in October, the latter in January. The school holidays were different. 60. The nationalist opposition, which grew stronger in the 1930s, enjoyed the support of the left wing parties of mainland France, particularly the Communist Party. 61. Quoted by De Torquat, Le collège St Michel, Antananarivo 1888–1988, 92. 62. A project which came to nothing in the face of their reluctance. 63. Official diary of Father-Rector Gevigney for 23 April 1934. St Michel College Archives at St Paul Theological College, Antananarivo. 64. De Torquat, Le collège St Michel, Antananarivo 1888–1988, 223. 65. In 1941 the diocese included around 20 churches, over 170 chapels and 37,000 faithful. 66. Le Messager du cœur de Jésus, July 1939. 67. De Torquat, P.F. Le collège St Michel, Antananarivo, 1888–1988, 105. 68. See Combeau-Mari, ‘The Cult of Maréchal Pétain and the Enrolment of Youth under Governor Annet [1941–1942]’. 69. De Torquat, P.F. Le collège St Michel, Antananarivo, 1888–1988, 111–12. 70. On Scouting in Madagascar, see Delval, ‘Les débuts du mouvement Scout et notamment du guidisme à Madagascar’, 290. 71. Posted to Tamatave in 1929, Father du Mas de Peysac initiated the creation of an essentially creole Scout troop. Afon Dasy, feu de camp, 1954. 72. In 1936 Father Derville created a wholly Malagasy troop which acquired a reputation for the quality of its Scouting. Afon Dasy, feu de camp, 1954. 73. Official Gazette. 74. See on these matters Ramanantsoa Ramarcel, B. ‘Les sociétés secrètes nationalistes à Madagascar dans la première moitié du XXème siècle, Vy, Vato, Sakelika [1913–1915], PANAMA [Parti National Socialiste Malgache 1941–1947], JINY [Jeunesse nationaliste 1943–1945]’. Doctoral Thesis, U. of Paris VII, 1985–1986. 75. Near Antananarivo, a training school for Jesuit seminarists. 76. Also elected a député [MP], Jacques Rabemananjara conducted a very violent electoral campaign in his constituency. Jacques Tiersonnier witnessed this propaganda in November 1946:‘Although he had spent the whole period of the occupation in France, marrying a Frenchwoman and pursuing successful studies and a career … he dared to say during his electoral tours in late 1946-early 1947: Have you the souls of slaves? Why do you respect the French? I saw them during the war, they ate swedes and bran, like pigs. Do you respect pigs?’ And another time: ‘Kill the French, cut them up and throw the pieces in the river.’ Quoted by Tiersonnier, J. S.J. Madagascar, les missionnaires acteurs du développement, 41. 77. Ravoahangy and Raseta, Protestant former members of the VVS, were elected MPs and sat in the French National Assembly. 78. The statutes of the MDRM, a Christian party dominated by the people of the High Plateaus, were drawn up in Paris by Jacques Rabemananjara with the help of the Jesuit Reverend Father Dunan, head of the information section of the Madagascar mission. Spacensky, A. Madagascar, cinquante ans de vie politique, de Ralaimongo à Tsiranana. Paris: Nouvelles éditions latines, 1970: 47. In reaction, the statutes of the PADESM [Party of the Disinherited of Madagascar] were registered in June 1946 by personalities from the coastal region, including Philibert Tsiranana, and with the support of the colonial administration which sought a return to the ‘old policy of races’ advocated by Gallieni at the beginning of his governorship in order to destroy Merina hegemony. 79. The Madagascar uprising of 1947 gave violent expression to post-war armed nationalist demands. It was harshly put down by the colonial administration, with over 10,000 dead. The main nationalist leaders were imprisoned. La ligue de défense des intérêts franco-malgaches and Tana-journal, La lumière sur les événements de Madagascar, Tananarive, 1947; Tronchon, L’insurrection malgache de 1947. 80. Among them Régis Rajemisa-Raolison. He was managing director of the Tanoran’i Madagasikara, the newspaper of the Catholic Sports Federation, which appeared for the first time in February 1953, succeeding Jeunes de Madagascar, bulletin de liaison de l’UGSM. See Rajaoson, L’enseignement supérieur et le devenir de la société malgache, 1985. 81. The bishops of Madagascar called on Jean de Puybaudet, still a trainee curate at Isotry, to draw up the ‘famous paragraph’. He was approached by Father Rahajarizafy. With his left-wing leanings and inexhaustible patience, the Father pursued his action ‘among the common people to help them become aware of the fears and complexes they must cast off’. His commitment and positions destabilized part of his hierarchy as well as the colonial administration. In December 1961, he was placed under an ‘expulsion order’ issued by the administration of the First Republic. He pursued his ministry in Reunion Island. Tiersonnier, J.S.J. Au cœur de l’île rouge, 50 ans de vie à Madagascar, 94. 82. Letter from the bishops of Madagascar to their flock, dated 26 November 1953, quoted by Lupo, P. Eglise et décolonisation à Madagascar. Fianarantsoa: Editions Ambozontany, 1973: 66. 83. Speech made on 22 June 1947 by Father J.B. Janssens, Superior General of the Society of Jesus, during a visit to Madagascar. Bulletin du collège St Michel, 5, June 1948. St Michel College Archives at St Paul Theological College, Antananarivo. 84. Aged 34, Father Tiersonnier had just completed his training as a Jesuit. Deeply marked by his time in the army, first as a mounted artilleryman, then as chaplain to a fighting unit at the end of the war, he had fighting spirit and a sense of initiative. He remained at the head of the establishment from 1948 to 1955. He supported the Malagasy nationalist movement. Tiersonnier, J. S.J. Au cœur de l’île rouge, 50 ans de vie à Madagascar: 20. 85. Letter dated 26 July 1955 from a pupil of the Malagasy division to the Father-Rector. In De Torquat, Le collège St Michel, Antananarivo 1888–1988, 134. 86. The birth of a new association on 9 August 1945, under a different appellation, Les Amis du collège St Michel [Friends of St Michel College], should be understood as a parenthesis in the associative history of the establishment. It was spurred by Adolphe de Guiran, a former pupil from the years 1902–1906. The inaugural text of the association, drawn up by Adolphe de Guiran, testifies to the nostalgia and resentment felt by European alumni: ‘The association of the Friends of St Michel College is now at last constituted. It will bring together all those who attended this dear school, who roamed through its arches, stairways and corridors, who studied … prayed in its chapel, played so often in its yard, that little yard opposite the Ramahatra palace. How sad we were in 1906 when it was judged necessary to close the “vazahas [Europeans] division.” How our hearts ached at the thought that we should no longer return to our teachers and supervisors the following term, that we should have to abandon our studies, all because when the vazahas division was closed, nobody thought to create an official organization to replace it, so cutting, if I may say so, the ground beneath the feet of those who attended the College.’ Bulletin du collège St Michel, 1, 1945. 87. The Board consisted of: President: Raymond Hoareau; Vice-president: Claude Rollo; Treasurer: Marc Lagane; Secretary: Roger Grosset. Bulletin du collège St Michel 2, 1945. 88. The SMA defeated the Police Sports Union 4-1 and Le-Myre-de-Vilers 6-1. Bulletin du collège St Michel, 2, 1945. 89. See Wahl, A. Les archives du football, sport et société en France [1880–1980], 51. 90. See Combeau-Mari, ‘Rugby on the High Plateaus: A Physical Culture of Combat and Emancipation’. 91. Catholic Federation founded by Dr Michaux in 1898. 92. Until then, football had spread more widely in the coastal regions. Tamatave was considered a football stronghold. 93. The first swimming pool had been built in the late 1930s. It was renovated in 1946. 94. Most of these personalities were Malagasy: Rev. Father Armand Razafindratandra, Paul Gaston Raboanaly, Rev. Father Michel Lagrange, Edouard Rakotomanga, Severin Raneboson. Andriamiharinosy, Livre d’or, cinquante ans d’association sportive St Michel Football 1948–1998. 95. The club was first affiliated to the UGSM, then in 1950 joined the Madagascar football league, attached to the French Football Federation. 96. This club became the ASSM: Association Sportive St Michel Football, one of the most popular clubs in Antananarivo. 97. He was president until 1960. 98. The most active seems to have been Antanimena, under Father Rayet, parish priest and St Michel alumnus. 99. Conversation with Father Givran, quoted in the Bulletin St Michel, 12, Christmas 1962. St Michel College Archives at St Paul Theological College, Antananarivo. 100. Bulletin St Michel, 1, 1958–1959. 101. The epitome of the European team. 102. Short passing and swirling play. 103. The Antananarivo public was rugby-mad, and so difficult to mobilise for football. 104. A regional tournament opposing Reunion, Mauritius and Madagascar, and won regularly by the Mauritians. See Combeau-Mari, E. ed. 100 ans de football à La Réunion. 105. See Combeau-Mari, ‘Sport and Decolonisation: The Community Games, April 1960’. 106. Note that out of prudence rugby was not included as an event in the Community Games. 107. Born in the district of Mandritsara, at Ambarikorana, in 1912, this farmer's son was a pure product of French secular schooling. Aged 20 he obtained his primary teaching diploma in Antananarivo. After 12 years of teaching, he passed the examination to become an assistant secondary school teacher and left for France in 1945 to complete his studies. Many Malagasy of his generation went to France to finish their studies. 108. The heir of the PADESM. 109. Four personalities who had been to St Michel College were included in the Philibert Tsiranana government: Jean-Jacques Nataï, Minister of Agriculture, Henri Beranto, principal private secretary to the President, Jacques Rabemananjara, Foreign Minister and above all General Gabriel Ramanantsoa, head of the Armed Forces. 110. In reality the diversity of these personalities brought together by their duty to God made them a relative disparate band, unlike the image attached to the legend of sixteenth-century-style scheming monks. The older ones resisted and had difficulty understanding the inversion of roles entailed by the rise of the native clergy. A few young priests, including Reverend Fathers Boué, de Puybaudet, Puls, Guervain, Tabaille advocated ‘constructive progressivism’ and considered that their mission was not incompatible with political militancy. Spacensky, A. Madagascar, cinquante ans de vie politique, de Ralaimongo à Tsiranana, 206. The Reverend Father Jacques Tiersonnier, Rector of the College, supported the movement. 111. Spacensky, A. Madagascar, cinquante ans de vie politique, de Ralaimongo à Tsiranana, 127. 112. The men of the church wielded extraordinary influence over the population. Religion served as an educational, social and political basis. In the 1950s the College educated a certain number of Malagasy priests who reached the top of the ecclesiastical hierarchy. Edouard Ranaivo, François Xavier Rajaonarivo and Armand Toasy were among them. 113. See the table listing the foundation of Catholic secondary schools [1950–1970] in Galibert, D. ‘Les gens du pouvoir à Madagascar: Etat post-colonial, légitimités et territoire [1956–2002]’. Doctoral thesis in anthropology [2 volumes], under the supervision of Pr Bernard Champion, U. of Reunion Island, October 2006: 35. 114. In 1954, the Scout movement included four packs of 25 wolfcubs and a Malagasy pack being formed in Antananarivo. The Scout branch included seven units in Antananarivo, a troop at Antsirabe, a troop at Ambatolampy, a troop at Arivonimamo and a patrol at Ankazobe. At La Route [The Road], four solid clans were being got ready: two were Malagasy, one vazaha, one military. Afon dasy, feu de camp 1954. 115. Cholvy, G. ‘L’église de France et les Œuvres de jeunesse’ in Cholvy, G. and Tranvouez, Y. Sport, culture et religion, les patronages catholiques [1898–1998]. Brest: Centre de recherche bretonne et celtique, 1999. 116. Only two Catholic associations were recorded in the capital until 1955: Association St Michel and Jeunesse catholique sportive [Catholic Sporting Youth] [1942]. 117. Rajaonarison, A. ‘Les associations autorisées sous la colonisation à Madagascar [1896–1960]. Leur rôle dans la construction de la conscience ethnique et nationale’. Doctoral thesis in contemporary history, under the direction of Françoise Raison-Jourde, U. of Paris VII, 2003: 104–5. 118. Tanoran’i madagasikara, 35, February 1955, CAOM. POM/B/519. 119. ‘Consignes du chef’ [Chief's Instructions], Tanoran’i madagasikara 32, October 1954. 120. Afon Dasy, feu de camp, 1953 was a new paper intended to cover the development of Catholic Scouting in Madagascar. It emphasised the bonds that Scouting aimed to create between communities torn apart by the colonial system. 121. Affaires politiques 2412–4. ‘Groupements et associations sportives indigènes [1943–1944]’ [Indigenous groups and sporting associations], CAOM. Quoted by Rajaonarison, A. ‘Les associations autorisées sous la colonisation à Madagascar [1896–1960]’, 116. 122. Delval, R. ‘Les débuts du mouvement Scout et notamment du guidisme à Madagascar’, 291. 123. Michel Randria, a College alumnus, elected mayor of Fianarantsoa, was leader of L’Union Nationale Chrétienne [National Christian Union], the most important grouping in terms of numbers and political influence. 124. Since 1945 the Lycée Gallieni had taken in steadily increasing numbers of Malagasy pupils. 125. Conversation with Brother Romain at Sacré Cœur College, Toliara, on 8 June 2000. 126. Ibid. 127. Bulletin St Michel, 3, September 1960. 128. St Michel College Collection. 129. Madagascar Office of School and University Sports. 130. Conversation with Brother Romain at Sacré Cœur College, Toliara, on 8 June 2000. 131. AS St Michel won twelve Madagascar championship titles. 132. Personal account of Olivier Randriamananjara, President of the St Michel Alumni Association since 1989, on Thursday, 22 October 1999, Antananarivo. 133. The University of Antananarivo was founded by presidential decree on 14 July 1961. 134. Editorial by Father-Rector de Torquat in the Bulletin St Michel, 36, Christmas 1968. 135. Jacques Rabemananjara was Foreign Minister in the Tsiranana government. 136. Gergaud, M. ‘La formation d’une élite malgache au collège Saint Michel de 1888 à nos jours’, 114. 137. For further details see Gergaud, M. ‘La formation d’une élite malgache au collège Saint Michel de 1888 à nos jours’, 115. 138. Letter from Mgr Rolland, Bishop of Antsirabe in 1956. Spacensky, A. Madagascar, cinquante ans de vie politique, de Ralaimongo à Tsiranana, 207. 139. Gergaud, M. ‘La formation d’une élite malgache au collège Saint Michel de 1888 à nos jours’, 92. 140. De Torquat, P.F. Le collège St Michel, Antananarivo 1888-1988. op. cit : 215. 141. Quoted in Le Livre d’or, 50 ans d’association sportive St Michel Football 1948–1998. Antananarivo, Madagascar, 1998. 142. Conversation with Brother Romain at Sacred Heart College, Toliara, on 8 June 2000. 143. In the Bulletin St Michel, 34 dated June 1968, the Father-Rector made a plea for the promotion of total education in a column entitled ‘Educating rather than teaching’. 144. De Torquat, P.F. Le collège St Michel, Antananarivo 1888–1988, 85.