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Reading Billboard 1979–89: Exploring Rap Music's Emergence through the Music Industry's Most Influential Trade Publication

2011; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 34; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/03007766.2010.522806

1740-1712

Anthony Kwame Harrison, Craig Arthur,

Theater, Performance, and Music History

Abstract This article presents the qualitative content of Billboard magazine as an important resource for expanding popular music scholars' understandings of the activities, motives, and structures that shape commercial music. We argue that through careful consideration of columns appearing in Billboard researchers can resurrect, re-imagine, and update forgotten and overlooked aspects of music industry history. A thick reading of the trade journal between 1979 and 1989 reveals how rap's emergence into the field of popular music commerce was marked by struggles over its definition, placement, and meaning. In our particular reading of Billboard we emphasize its value in uncovering new perspectives on the context of innovation within popular music and enhancing existing production of culture analyses. Acknowledgements We would like to thank our two anonymous Popular Music and Society reviewers for their numerous insights which added considerably to the development and overall quality of this piece. Notes [1] "King Tim III" debuted on 6 October at number eighty-eight; "Rapper's Delight" debuted the following week at number eighty-one, and went as high as number four on the "Hot Soul Singles" chart and number thirty-six on the "Hot 100" chart. [2] Similar, less heralded, stories surround the release of "King Tim III." In a November 1979 Billboard article Fat Back Band co-producer Jerry Thomas explained that the group's record label (Spring Records) had to switch the song from the B-side of the single to the A-side in response to audience demand (Joe and George; see also "Rap Records"). [3] For overwhelming attention given to Billboard's charts, see, for example, Peterson and Berger Peterson, Richard A. and Berger, David. 1975. Cycles in Symbolic Production: The Case of Popular Music. American Sociological Review, 40: 158–173. Print[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], Rothenbuhler and Dimmick Rothenbuhler, Eric W. and Dimmick, John W. 1982. Popular Music: Concentration and Diversity in the Industry, 1974–1980. Journal of Communication, 32: 143–147. Print[Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], and Lopes Lopes, Paul D. 1992. Innovation and Diversity in the Popular Music Industry, 1969–1990. American Sociological Review, 75: 56–71. Print[Crossref] , [Google Scholar]—and for hip-hop specific examples see the work of Lena. In terms of hip-hop scholarship, Murray Forman—who cites over 100 Billboard articles in his diligently researched book The 'Hood Comes First—and S. Craig Watkins are two of the only scholars to utilize the information found in Billboard columns in their work. [4] This notion of "thick reading" is derived from Clifford Geertz's Geertz, Clifford. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures, New York: Basic Books. Print [Google Scholar] concept of thick description. For our purposes "thick reading" can be defined as a critical methodology that acknowledges the significance of minute details, inconsistencies, and overall organization, paying attention to how such content would have been received within the historical context of its publication. [5] It was also in 1989 that the first rap music Grammy Award category appeared. [6] Anand, Bronson, and Ennis all have different accounts of this early chart history. [7] A parallel, albeit shorter, history can be traced for the black music album charts which started as the "Hot R&B LPs" chart in 1965. [8] Notably between November 1963 and January 1965 Billboard did not feature a black music chart (George, "Black Music"; Whitburn). [9] While this timeline is generally accurate there are some inconsistencies in the historical record regarding the specific dates that charts first appeared. In attempting to sort this out, we privilege Joel Whitburn's Whitburn, Joel. 1 Nov. 1994. Chart Histories. Billboard, : 262–273. Print [Google Scholar] "Chart Histories" published in the "100th Anniversary" Special Issue of Billboard. See also Bronson; Anand. [10] Even with this addition Billboard continued to run a distinct "Hot Rap Singles" chart. [11] Another unheralded song in this tradition is Keith LeBlanc's Malcolm X tribute record "No Sell Out" (see George George, Nelson. 26 Nov. 1983. Two Records Mix Music, Message. Billboard, : 52 Print [Google Scholar], "Two"). [12] According to the article, Winley, who had apparently been caught bootlegging Mahalia Jackson recordings, would be fined $12,500 and given five years probation ("N.Y."). [13] Though there had been earlier Billboard columns discussing an emerging "b-beat" (Ford Ford, Robert, Jr. 1 July 1978. B-Beats Bombarding Bronx. Billboard, : 65 Print [Google Scholar], "B-Beats") and "rapping DJ" (Ford, "Jive") scene within the Bronx, Queens, and other sections of New York, Williams ("Quick") and Joe and George ("Rapping") were the first and second Billboard articles, respectively, to report on rap as a commodified music form. [14] The report —appearing in the same article—that his debut album was slated to be titled "Kurtis Blow Live from Post-War Harlem" (Joe and George 64) provides some resolution to this debate. [15] They also may have contributed to the cultivation of a unified New York City hip-hop identity by refocusing intra-NYC rivalries and geographic authenticity claims in the direction of non-New Yorkers. [16] See, for example, the story of early Connecticut hip hop as told through the liner notes of Stones Throw Records' 2004 album The Third Unheard (DEMAND DEMAND, Popular. 2004. The Third Unheard: Connecticut Hip Hop 1979–1983, Los Angeles: Stones Throw Records. Album Liner Notes [Google Scholar]). [17] For instance, in an August 1986 Billboard article, George is extremely critical of the unjust media attention given to criminal incidents allegedly associated with rap concerts ("Bad Rap George, Nelson. 9 Aug. 1986. Bad Rap for N.Y.C. Rap Concert?. Billboard, : 26 Print [Google Scholar]"). [18] Def Jam was first announced in a November 1984 Billboard column ("Def Jam Label"). Additionally, the 1985 supplement included numerous thank you/congratulatory advertisements from record labels and sundry other businesses that had worked with Simmons and Rush. [19] This, however, was not rap's first indie-major agreement. A February 1984 Billboard article mentions a distribution deal between Tuff City Records and Epic ("Tuff City"; see also Hanley). [20] George and Ford actually roomed together during the late 1970s (George George, Nelson. 2009. City Kid: A Writer's Memoir of Ghetto Life and Post-Soul Success, New York: Penguin. Print [Google Scholar], City Kid). [21] Stacy Gueraseva Gueraseva, Stacy. 2005. Def Jam, Inc.: Russell Simmons, Rick Rubin, and the Extraordinary Story of the World's Most Influential Hip-Hop Label, New York: One World Books. Print [Google Scholar], author of Def Jam Inc., elaborates on Ford's influence over the young Simmons' fashion sense: "Penny loafers, tweed jackets with suede elbow patches—anything but fashion forward—defined Russell's wardrobe in 1984. But all he was trying to do was emulate his mentor in the business, Rocky Ford" (34). [22] One key factor in this was a 1971 Harvard Business School Report which highlighted the strategic importance of soul music and the need to hire black personnel who had knowledge of both black music and the workings of its industry (Basu; George, Death). [23] Notably, under this system only a handful of black personnel reached positions of power above the black music divisional level (Basu; Garofalo; George, "Are Blacks"). [24] In 1979 music industry overall sales dropped 11%, with companies like CBS seeing as high as a 46% decline (Goodman, Mansion 333). [25] This was foreshown in a November 1979 article detailing the efforts of the Arbitron radio ratings system to adjust their procedures to "more accurately report black listening" (Hall Hall, Doug. 3 Nov. 1979. Black Listenership Will Merit Heavier Attention from Arbitron. Billboard, : 26 Print [Google Scholar], "Black Listenership" 26). The article discussed the significance of black music getting wider airplay and black artists becoming more influential in the near future. [26] In fact, in June 1983 Billboard ran a banner reading "Black Music Is Universal" in its Black Music section. [27] As well as the impact that such changes might have on other areas of black employment within the industry (Williams, "Black Radio"). [28] Another prominent development of this period that is highlighted in Billboard is the emergence of several organizations specifically intended to improve the position of and opportunities for African Americans within the music industry. This list includes the Black Music Association (George George, Nelson. 26 Feb. 1983. Problems Delaying Black Retail Program. Billboard, : 3 Print [Google Scholar] "Problems"; "Organizational 28 June 1980. Organizational Restructuring Surprise Move. Billboard, 1, 68. Print [Google Scholar]"; Williams, "Launch", "NARM Williams, Jean. 12 July 1980. NARM Assist. Billboard, 6, 53. Print [Google Scholar]") founded in 1979, the Young Black Programmers Coalition (Williams Williams, Jean. 17 Jan. 1981. Black Programmers Plan Expansion into 5 States. Billboard, 10, 36. Print [Google Scholar], "Black Programmers") also founded in 1979, and the Jack the Rapper's annual convention (Williams Williams, Jean. 5 Sept. 1981. Black Disk Distribution, Radio Top Topics at Rapper Confab. Billboard, : 52 Print [Google Scholar], "Black Disk") started in 1976. [29] See also Simmons's comments in George's "Rush Management," "Def Jam," "Rap Visionary," and "Russell Simmons 8 Sept. 1984. Russell Simmons' Rush Represents Rappers. Billboard, : 50 Print [Google Scholar]." [30] A reference to Michael Jackson's crossover single—featuring Eddie Van Halen on guitar—from his ground-breaking Thriller album. [31] Including number one "Black LPs" by Public Enemy, Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince, and EPMD, as well as top ten albums by Run DMC and Eric B & Rakim (George, "Rush Management"). [32] Similar, yet less high profile, producer/managers from the era include Herby "Lovebug" Azor (Nelson, "Hip Hop") Andre Harrell (George George, Nelson. 23 Jan. 1988. Former Rapper Harrell Goes Uptown as Manager. Billboard, : 28 Print [Google Scholar], "Former"), and Tom Silverman (George, "Hit"). [33] Indeed, by 1988 Billboard was announcing the establishment of a new Rush Management music producer division (George George, Nelson. 18 June 1988. Rush Sets New Producer Division. Billboard, : 24 Print [Google Scholar], "Rush Sets").