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Hip Sensibility in an Age of Mass Counterculture

2008; Routledge; Volume: 2; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/17494060802373382

1749-4079

Phil Ford,

Musicians’ Health and Performance

Abstract While hipness is most often thought to be an ineffable quality of individual style, this article proceeds from the idea that hipness is a sensibility that for the past half‐century has structured art and thought in various recognizable ways. What drives changes in hip style is a conception of the individual's alienation from society—alienation due to a clash of sensibility and perception rather than any specific political wrong. This clash is rendered in the representational archetypes of the hipster and the square, or, more abstractly, in the schema of asymmetrical consciousness that defines their relationship. While hip culture changed dramatically in the 1960s, its structuring tropes of ironic displacement are variously manifest in Charlie Parker's "Ornithology," Bob Dylan's "Ballad of a Thin Man," and Ken Nordine's "Sound Museum." Acknowledgements This essay was written with the support of the Stanford Humanities Fellows Program. I would like to thank my colleagues in that program, and especially Seth Lerer, its director, for their help and encouragement. I would also like to thank the graduate students participating in the Berkeley Colloquia in the Musicologies, where an early version of this paper was first read. Also, thanks to Helen Ford, Lee Konstantinou, and Graham Larkin for their comments and ideas at various stages in the preparation of this essay. Notes 1. Milt Gabler and John Benson Brooks, "What's a Square?," from Avant Slant (One Plus 1 = II?): A Twelve Tone Collage, Decca DL 75018, 1968, LP. 2. Indeed, scholars have most comprehensively understood hipness as prestige: the best recent writing on counterculture has concentrated on the problems of consumption and competitive prestige within hip subcultures. See especially Sarah Thornton, Club Cultures: Music, Media, and Subcultural Capital (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 1996); Joseph Heath and Andrew Potter, Nation of Rebels: How Counterculture Became Consumer Culture (New York: Harper Collins, 2004); and Thomas Frank, The Conquest of Cool (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997). Other significant academic studies of hipness include Scott Saul, Freedom Is, Freedom Ain't: Jazz and the Making of the Sixties (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003); Andrew Ross, "Hip, and the Long Front of Color," in No Respect: Intellectuals and Popular Culture (London: Routledge, 1989), 65–101; Ingrid Monson, "The Problem of White Hipness: Race, Gender, and Cultural Conceptions in Jazz Historical Discourse," Journal of the American Musicological Society 48, no. 3 (1995): 396–422; John Leland, Hip: The History (New York: Ecco, imprint of HarperCollins, 2004); and Philip Ford, "Somewhere/Nowhere: Hipness as an Aesthetic," Musical Quarterly 86, no. 1 (Spring 2002): 49–81. 3. Julian "Cannonball" Adderley, "Introduction," from The Cannonball Adderley Sextet in New York, Riverside RLP 9404, 1962, LP; reissued as Riverside 9404, 2005, compact disc. 4. LeRoi Jones, "Milneburg Joys (Or, Against 'Hipness' As Such)," Kulchur 3 (1961): 41; Amiri Baraka, The Autobiography of LeRoi Jones (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 1997), 261–62. 5. Quoted in Hear Me Talkin' to Ya: The Story of Jazz As Told by the Men Who Made It, eds. Nat Shapiro and Nat Hentoff (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955; reprinted Dover, 1966), 405. 6. I am referring to the observer effect that is central to the uncertainty principle theory of the German quantum physicist Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976). 7. Malcolm Gladwell, "The Coolhunt," New Yorker, March 17, 1997, 78–88. In his recent novel Pattern Recognition, William Gibson has also treated the figure of the coolhunter, which he further described as a "dowser in the world of global marketing" with a "violent reactivity to the semiotics of the marketplace." William Gibson, Pattern Recognition (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 2003), 2. 8. Thomas Frank, "Why Johnny Can't Dissent," in Commodify Your Dissent: Salvos from the Baffler, eds. Thomas Frank and Matt Weiland (New York: Norton, 1997), 31–45. 9. Co‐optation—the idea that the most effective way to stifle dissent is to commodify it—is most seriously and comprehensively treated in Frank's The Conquest of Cool. See also Gerald Graff, "Co‐optation," in The New Historicism, ed. H. Aram Veeser (London: Routledge, 1989), 168–81. 10. Eric Hobsbawm, "Jazz Since 1960," in Uncommon People (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1998), 281. 11. Billy Taylor, "Jazz in the Contemporary Marketplace: Professional and Third‐Sector Strategies for the Balance of the Century," in New Perspectives on Jazz (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990), 89–98. 12. Philip Larkin, "Jazz as a Way of Life," in All What Jazz (London: Faber and Faber, 1970), 62. 13. The literature on the American New Left is huge. The classic study of the Students for a Democratic Society, the flagship organization of the student New Left, is Kirkpatrick Sale, SDS (New York: Random House, 1973). Lately there have been excellent studies that place the SDS in the context of liberal Christianity, the burgeoning New Right, the counterculture, and society at large. See Douglas Rossinow, The Politics of Authenticity: Liberalism, Christianity, and the New Left in America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998); Rebecca E. Klatch, A Generation Divided: The New Left, the New Right, and the 1960s (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); and David Farber, Chicago '68 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988). The best general histories of the New Left are probably Todd Gitlin, The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York: Bantam, 1987; repr. 1993), and James Miller, Democracy Is in the Streets (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987). 14. Recent studies of hipness have tended to agree, moving past paralyzing and ultimately futile debates over whether this or that piece of hip culture is "authentic" or has "sold out" and seeking instead to understand how hipness functions as a "positional good" in the marketplace. Frank, Heath and Potter, and Thornton are the main figures to mention in this context, although Daniel Bell anticipated some of their ideas. See Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 1976; repr. 1996). 15. Industrial Workers of the World, "Resurgent Youth Movement," pamphlet (March 12, 1967), box 34, New Left Collection, Hoover Institution Library and Archives, Stanford University. The tension between the New Left and countercultural ends of the Movement spectrum can be traced through successive issues of Ramparts, perhaps the most important publication of the New Left. See, for example, Joan Holden and R. G. Davis, "Living," Ramparts 8, no. 2 (August 1969), 63; Joan Holden, "The Wild West Rock Show: Shooting Up a Rock Bonanza," Ramparts 8, no. 6 (December 1969), 70–76; Ed Leimbacher, "The Crash of the Jefferson Airplane," Ramparts 8, no. 7 (January 1970), 14–16. 16. See, for example, Rolling Stone's front‐page polemic against the Yippies and their attempt to recruit rock musicians to their 1968 action in Chicago. Jann Wenner, "Musicians Reject Political Exploiters," Rolling Stone, May 11, 1968, 1, 22. 17. Nelson Barr, "A Bouquet of Fuck Yous," Fuck You: A Magazine of the Arts 5, no. 4 [1963], unpaginated. A good overview of this topic is Doug Rossinow, "The Revolution Is About Our Lives: The New Left's Counterculture," in Imagine Nation: The American Counterculture of the 1960s and 70s, eds. Peter Braunstein and Michael William Doyle (New York: Routledge, 2002), 99–124. 18. Laurence Leamer, The Paper Revolutionaries: The Rise of the Underground Press (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972), 13. See also Terry H. Anderson, The Movement and the Sixties (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995). 19. Norman Mailer, "The White Negro: Superficial Reflections on the Hipster," in Advertisements for Myself (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1959), 337–58. "The White Negro" was originally published in Dissent 4, no. 3 (1957). 20. Strictly speaking, it was radio McLuhan called the "tribal drum." McLuhan suggested that this medium held the "power to turn the psyche and society into a single echo chamber" and to reverse Western individualism into collectivism. Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (New York: McGraw‐Hill, 1964; repr. Corte Madera, CA: Gingko Press, 2003), 401. 21. Edward Binns, Ernest Pintoff, and Guy Fraumeni, This Is Marshall McLuhan: The Medium Is the Massage (New York: NBC, McGraw‐Hill Films, 1967). This was a one‐hour NBC television documentary that explained McLuhan's ideas to a youth audience. McLuhan called it "grotesque trash," but the program is a valuable document of how McLuhan's thought was coming to be used as a theoretical scaffolding for countercultural aesthetics. Philip Marchand, Marshall McLuhan: The Medium and the Messenger (New York: Ticknor and Fields, 1989; repr. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998), 203. 22. Mailer, "The White Negro," 339. 23. Norman Mailer, "The Hip and the Square," in Advertisements for Myself, 424–25. 24. For a somewhat sympathetic portrait of this archetype, see Sloan Wilson, The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit (Simon and Schuster, 1955). What distinguishes the novel's hapless protagonist from the square, though, is that he is fully aware of what suburban life is costing him. 25. Elizabeth Hardwick, "The American Woman as Snow‐Queen: Our Self‐Contemptuous Acceptance of Europe's Myth," Commentary 12, no. 6 (December 1951): 546–50. 26. The figure Hardwick called the "snow queen" is also sometimes called the "Stepford wife." The latter term comes from a novel that was adapted into a popular film in the mid‐1970s; Ira Levin, The Stepford Wives (New York; Random House, 1972). The novel concerns a young married couple who move to the pleasant town of Stepford. This community's apparent tranquility hides a sinister conspiracy among the men to replace their wives with perfect, smiling, compliant robots. The most notable latter‐day snow queen/Stepford wife is doubtless the figure of Carolyn Burnham in the film American Beauty, DVD, dir. Sam Mendes (DreamWorks Home Entertainment, 2000). 27. Greil Marcus, The Old, Weird America (New York: Picador, 1997), 8. 28. Bob Dylan, "Ballad of a Thin Man," on Highway 61 Revisited, Columbia CS 9189, 1965, LP; reissued as Columbia 5123512, 2004, compact disc. 29. This is how Nat Hentoff approaches the matter in a 1965 Evergreen Review essay that takes its title from Dylan's refrain. Hentoff, abandoning the stern Partisan Review manner of his late‐1950s Jazz Review writing for the spaced‐out cadences of 1960s youth culture slang, argues that the young are privileged with an ineffable understanding of "wholeness" denied, almost categorically, to their elders. For Hentoff, the new youth consciousness is reflected most in its music, which he sees as a kind of litmus test: "grownups hear fragments of the pounding beat and the electronically raw sound making it in pop music and they don't get the message." Nat Hentoff, "Something's Happening and You Don't Know What It Is Do You, Mr. Jones?," Evergreen Review 10, no. 4 (1966): 54. 30. Pauline Kael felt that this dual consciousness was the source of Dylan's sense of humor: "The Bob Dylan [his fans] responded to was a put‐on artist. He was derisive, and even sneering, but in the Sixties that was felt to be a way of freaking out those who weren't worthy of being talked to straight. Implicit in the put‐on was the idea that the Establishment was so fundamentally dishonest that dialogue with any of its representatives (roughly, anyone who wore a tie) was debased from the start. And Dylan was a Counterculture hero partly because of the speed and humor of his repartee." Pauline Kael, "The Calvary Gig," New Yorker, February 13, 1978, 107–11. Compare this with Jacob Brackman's discussion of put‐on humor in the following section of this essay. 31. Its effect is felt in postwar conceptual humor, for example. Growing out of Chicago's Second City Theater, Saturday Night Live popularized (and SCTV mastered) a style of conceptual humor about mass culture. In 1999, Katherine O'Hara reminisced that SCTV's humor came in part from "playing such untalented people who are so cocky in their own little small world … and to fantasize that we are above that, we're above our characters somehow." Katherine O'Hara, interview in SCTV Network 90, vol. 1, DVD, dirs. Jim Drake and John Bell (Shout Factory, 2004). 32. This appears to have been the San Remo bar, which Anatole Broyard described in "Village Cafe," Partisan Review 17, no. 5 (1950): 524–8. 33. Yale '54 [pseud.], letter to "Saloon Society," Village Voice, March 11, 1959, 12. Jules Feiffer commented on this kind of quasi‐anthropological (and sexual) tourism, as he did on almost every other aspect of Village life and its culture. See Jules Feiffer, "Sick, Sick, Sick," cartoon, Village Voice, January 21, 1959, 4. 34. Chandler Brossard, Who Walk in Darkness (New York: New Directions, 1952), 65. 35. Jay Landesman, Rebel Without Applause (Sag Harbor, NY: Permanent Press, 1987), 86. Broyard's role in Brossard's novel is discussed in Henry Louis Gates, Jr., "White Like Me," New Yorker, June 17, 1996, 60. 36. Kenneth Burke, "Four Master Tropes," in A Grammar of Motives (New York: Prentice‐Hall, 1945), 503–15. 37. For a fuller discussion of this gesture and its implications, see Ford, "Somewhere/Nowhere," 53–66. 38. John Clellon Holmes, "The Name of the Game," in Passionate Opinions (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1988), 54–5. 39. Anatole Broyard, "Portrait of the Hipster," Partisan Review 15, no. 6 (1948): 724. 40. Charlie Parker, "Ornithology" (rec. 1945), reissued on disc 1 of Charlie Parker, The Complete Savoy and Dial Master Takes, Savoy SVY 17149, 2002, compact disc. 41. André Hodeir, Towards Jazz, trans. Noel Burch (New York: Grove Press, 1962), 181. 42. Broyard, "Portrait of the Hipster," 724. Emphasis in the original. 43. Philip H. Ennis, The Seventh Stream: The Emergence of Rocknroll in American Popular Music (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 1992), 86. 44. Thomas Pynchon, "Entropy," in Slow Learner (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1984), 94–95. 45. John Mehegan, letter to the editors, Down Beat, June 13, 1956, 4. 46. When one letter writer objected to Davis's habit in the pages of Down Beat, another responded, "why don't those fellows pay more attention to what the musician is playing and forget about titles? If you are familiar with the man's work, he needn't announce the title of a tune. If you aren't hip, well, that's your red wagon." Erle Irons, letter to the editors, Down Beat, January 7, 1960, 8. 47. Ross Russell, "The Benedetti Tapes," typescript, box 13, folder 6 ("Yardbird in Lotusland"), Ross Russell Papers, Harry Ransom Humanities Research Center at the University of Texas at Austin. This article has been published in French as Ross Russell, "Yardbird in Lotusland: Les Souvenirs de Ross Russell sur Charlie Parker," Jazz Hot 255, November 1969, 22–25. I have used Russell's original typescript as the source for my quotations. 48. Charlie Parker, Bird on 52nd Street, Jazz Workshop JWS‐501, 1958, LP. 49. Russell, "Benedetti Tapes," 13–14. 50. Ross Russell, The Sound (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1961), 165. 51. Nat Hentoff, "Lennie Tristano: Multitaping Doesn't Make Me a Phony," Down Beat 23, no. 10, May 16, 1956, 11. 52. William Bruce Cameron, "Sociological Notes on the Jam Session," Social Forces 33, no. 1 (December 1954): 177–82; Alan P. Merriam and Raymond W. Mack, "The Jazz Community," Social Forces 38, no. 3 (1960): 211–22; and Howard Becker, "The Professional Dance Musician and His Audience," The American Journal of Sociology 57, no. 2 (1951): 136–44. This last article was republished, in slightly different form, as Howard Becker, "The Culture of a Deviant Group: The Dance Musician," in Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (New York: Free Press, 1963), 79–100, and has been reprinted in The Subcultures Reader, eds. Ken Gelder and Sarah Thornton (London: Routledge, 1997), 55–65. 53. Stephen Kercher, Revel with a Cause: Liberal Satire in Postwar America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), 78. 54. The topic of sick humor and "sickniks" (sick‐joking hipsters) was a journalistic fad of the late 1950s and early 1960s—the same years as the parallel fad for Beatnik stories. See "The Sickniks," Time, July 13, 1959, 42; Robert Ruark, "Lets Nix the Sickniks," Saturday Evening Post, June 29–July 6, 1963, 338–39; "Bloody Mary, Anyone?," Time, October 21, 1957, 27; Gerald Walker, "Sick Jokes," Esquire 48, December 1957, 151–53; and Gilbert Millstein, "The New Sick and/or Well Comic," The New York Times Magazine, August 7, 1960, 36. 55. Jonathan Miller, "The Sick White Negro," Partisan Review 30, no. 1 (1963): 151. 56. Benjamin DeMott, "The New Irony: Sickniks and Others," The American Scholar 31 (Winter 1961–1962): 108–19. 57. Individual exceptions notwithstanding, there is a good deal of sociological evidence that suggests Movement participants were not rebelling against their parents' politics. Many of them were "red‐diaper babies" who sought to honor their parent's radicalism by reinventing it. Rebecca Klatch points out that this is equally true of the young activists in the 1960s New Right: "Rather than a rejection of the older generation, the involvement of the majority of activists of both the left and the right represents an extension of parental beliefs." Klatch, A Generation Divided, 43. See also Richard Flacks, "The Liberated Generation: An Exploration of the Roots of Student Protest," Journal of Social Issues 23, no. 3 (1967): 52–75; Steven H. Lewis and Robert E. Kraut, "Correlates of Student Political Activism and Ideology," Journal of Social Issues 28, no. 4 (1972): 131–49; and James Donovan and Morton Shaevitz, "Student Political Activists: A Typology," Youth and Society 4, no. 4 (June 1973): 379–411. More generally, the model of generational conflict has proved inadequate to explain the differences in attitude between young people as a whole (not only the radicals) and their parents. See Kent Jennings and Richard Niemi, "Continuity and Change in Political Orientations: A Longitudinal Study of Two Generations," American Political Science Review 69 (1975): 1316–1355. 58. Jacob Brackman, The Put‐On: Modern Fooling and Modern Mistrust (Chicago: Henry Regnery Company, 1971), 90. 59. Ibid., 91. 60. Leslie A. Fiedler, "The New Mutants," Partisan Review 32, no. 4 (1965): 505–25. For an example of this sort of writing from a slightly later time, see Kaiser Aluminum News 27, no. 1 (May 1969), which, despite its name, was a graphically sophisticated countercultural publication devoted to analyzing the dawning awareness of the "children of change." In this context, it is worth noting science fiction's influence on the 1960s counterculture; see especially Theodore Sturgeon, More Than Human (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Young, 1953), a particularly influential work. 61. The Beats anticipated the 1960s counterculture in this respect. In Go, a 1952 roman à clef about the Beats, John Clellon Holmes has "Gene Pasternak" (his stand‐in for Kerouac) muse about the Beat ethos in terms that adumbrate the Movement's mysticism about its own dawning mass consciousness: "You know, everyone I know is kind of furtive, kind of beat. They all go along the street like they were guilty of something, but didn't believe in guilt. I can spot them immediately! And it's happening all over the country, to everyone; a sort of revolution of the soul, I guess you'd call it!" John Clellon Holmes, Go (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1952; repr. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 1988), 36. 62. Those within the 1960s counterculture often contrasted the new rock to older forms of American popular music in such terms; for example, "white American music, in finally discarding its phony tin‐pan alley plastic‐sugar trip, has exposed the poverty of sensitivity that characterizes this culture." "Indo‐Rock," P.O. Frisco, September 3, 1966, 8. 63. Irving Howe, "Mass Society and Post‐Modern Fiction," Partisan Review 26, no. 3 (1959): 426. 64. Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. Thomas Berger (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989). 65. Even those who did not quite like or comprehend the new music could sense that bebop demanded understanding as an urgent expression of its times. A cartoon parody of the new bebop hipsters in a 1948 issue of Down Beat makes a joke out of the modernist critical language that works this trope: a rube listens with slack‐jawed credulity at a bebopper's put‐on, a torrent of modernist clichés ("What's bebop?? Why, man, it's the inevitable! It's a classic protest against the chaos, the desolation, the abject melancholia of our times," etc.). J. Lee Anderson, "What's Bebop??," cartoon, Down Beat 15, no. 8, April 21, 1948, 3. 66. For a study of the role of Jazz Review and similar publications played in jazz's critical discourse, see John Gennari, Blowin' Hot and Cool: Jazz and Its Critics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006). 67. The most crystalline and epigrammatic expression of this thought may be found in Theodor Adorno, "Finale," in Minima Moralia, trans. E. F. N. Jephcott (London: Verso, 1978), 247. 68. Leszek Kolakowski, Main Currents of Marxism: Its Origin, Growth, and Dissolution, vol. 3, The Breakdown, trans. P. S. Falla (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 489. 69. This analysis, while implied or assumed in a wide variety of late‐1960s Movement writings, appears to have crystallized within the New York anarchist group Up Against the Wall Motherfucker. See especially "Up Against the Wall Mother Fucker," in Ron Hahne, Ben Morea, et al., Black Mask and Up Against the Wall/Motherfucker: The Incomplete Works of Ron Hahne, Ben Morea and the Black Mask Group (London: Unpopular Books and Sabotage Editions, 1993), 97–107. A somewhat more systematic exposition of these ideas may be found in Murray Bookchin, Post‐Scarcity Anarchism (Berkeley, CA: Ramparts Press, 1971). Again, science fiction elaborated images that had been sketched as political theory. See Samuel R. Delany's Dhalgren (New York: Bantam, 1975). Delany's anarchic labyrinth city of Bellona offers a thrilling and dangerous post‐scarcity landscape to those brave or crazy enough to make it their home. 70. Hobsbawm, "Jazz Since 1960," 284–85. 71. A good introduction to Sinclair may be found in Jeff A. Hale, "The White Panthers' 'Total Assault on the Culture,'" in Imagine Nation, 125–56. 72. John Sinclair, "We Are A People," in Guitar Army: Street Writings/Prison Writings (New York: Douglas Book Corporation, 1972), 223. 73. Tom Hayden, Stew Albert, Judy Clavir, et al., "Berkeley Liberation Program," leaflet, box 63, folder "Leaflets 1969," Hardin B. Jones Archive, Hoover Institution Library and Archives, Stanford University. The Berkeley Liberation Program was first issued in the Berkeley Barb, May 30, 1969, shortly after the People's Park demonstrations in Berkeley. The ideological significance of this imagery is similar to that of the anarchist, socialist, and countercultural signs jammed together into the "Yippie flag" that Abbie Hoffman presumptuously called the "generally agreed upon flag of our nation." The flag was designed as a red five‐pointed star and marijuana leaf on a black background. Abbie Hoffman, Steal This Book (New York: Pirate Editions, Grove Press, 1971), 37. 74. Julian Beck, "The Seven Lamps of Architecture," in The Life of the Theater (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1972), essay no. 71 (unpaginated). 75. Morton Feldman, "Mr. Schuller's History Lesson," review of Twentieth Century Innovations: Prime Movers, by Gunther Schuller, Kulchur 3, no. 9 (1963): 88. 76. The literary journal Tri‐Quarterly published a special issue on little magazines that contains a great deal of information on the interlocking hip literary circles that created Kulchur and other similar publications; see especially Lita Hornick, "Kulchur: A Memoir," Tri‐Quarterly 43 (Fall 1978): 281–97; and Gilbert Sorrentino, "Neon, Kulchur, etc.," Tri‐Quarterly 43 (Fall 1978): 299–316. 77. Ben Morea, "Culture and Revolution," Black Mask no. 8 (October/November 1967), reprinted in Black Mask and Up Against the Wall/Motherfucker, 50. 78. The literature on this topic is large. Perhaps the best is Frederic Jameson, Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), and Jürgen Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures, trans. Frederick Lawrence (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987). Other influential studies include Andreas Huyssen, After the Great Divide: Modernism, Mass Culture, Postmodernism (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1986); and Matei Calinescu, The Five Faces of Modernity: Modernism, Avant‐Garde, Decadence, Kitsch, Postmodernism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1987). For a debate that circled around issues of how a residue of modernism could be found in apparently postmodernist music scholarship, see Gary Tomlinson, "Musical Pasts and Postmodern Musicologies: A Response to Lawrence Kramer," Current Musicology 53 (1993): 18–24; Lawrence Kramer, "Music Criticism and the Postmodernist Turn: In Contrary Motion with Gary Tomlinson," Current Musicology 53 (1993): 25–35; and Gary Tomlinson, response to Lawrence Kramer, Current Musicology 53 (1993): 36–40. 79. Daniel Bell's writing on 1960s aesthetics defined the first of these positions; intellectual rock critics like Richard Meltzer and Greil Marcus have tended toward the latter ones. See Daniel Bell, The Cultural Contradictions of Capitalism (New York: Basic Books, 1976; repr. 1996), 120–145; Richard Meltzer, The Aesthetics of Rock (New York: Something Else Press, 1970); Greil Marcus, Lipstick Traces: A Secret History of the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989). Bernard Gendron offers a solid overview of the ways in which critics positioned the Beatles within the discourse of modernism; see Bernard Gendron, Between Montmartre and the Mudd Club: Popular Music and the Avant‐Garde (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 161–224. More recently, Richard Taruskin has pointed out how rock's peculiar mass elitism recapitulated the ways modernism made taste an emblem of in‐group identification, even at a time when "modernist discourse was beginning to turn generations against one another in more fundamental ways than taste." Richard Taruskin, The Oxford History of Western Music, vol. 5, The Late Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 312. 80. Bill Gottlieb, "Six Arrangers Examine Modern Art," Down Beat, March 26, 1947, 2. 81. Beck, "Seven Lamps of Architecture." 82. LeRoi Jones, Blues People: Negro Music in White America (New York: William Morrow, 1963), 207. 83. Frank Zappa and the Mothers of Invention, Uncle Meat, Bizarre 2MS 2024, 1968, LP; reissued as Rykodisc 10506/07, 1995, compact disc. 84. Hilton Kramer, "Modernism and Its Enemies," New Criterion 4, no. 7 (March 1986): 7. 85. Jones, writing as Amiri Baraka, thought suppressed genocidal hate lay at the heart of rock's displacement of jazz. Baraka outlines this critique in his one‐act play, "Rockgroup," which contains a grotesque parody of the Beatles ("The Crackers"). Amiri Baraka, "Rockgroup," The Cricket 1 (1969): 41–43. 86. Thomas Albright, "Visuals," Rolling Stone, April 27, 1968, 14. 87. Ibid., 17. 88. This is a simplified and condensed version of Ihab Hassan's table of oppositions in the widely‐read postscript to The Dismemberment of Orpheus, 2nd ed. (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982), 267–68. 89. Chester Anderson, "Notes for the New Geology," San Francisco Oracle 6 (February 1967), 2. 90. Ibid., 23. 91. Norman Mailer, "Reflections on Hip" [correspondence between Mailer Ned Polsky], Advertisements for Myself, 369–71. 92. Lawrence Lipton, The Holy Barbarians (New York: Julian Messner, 1959), 213. 93. Seymour Krim thought that, except for the "tooting of his own uncool horn," Lipton was true to the Beat outlook—if anything, Krim faults the book for failing to convey the urgency of Beat rebellion. Seymour Krim, review of "The Holy Barbarians," by Lawrence Lipton, Evergreen Review 3, no. 9 (1960): 208–9. 94. Allen Ginsberg, unpublished notebook 50‐01 (ca. 1950–52), box 4, series 2, Allen Ginsberg Papers, Stanford University Special Collections, 129. 95. See, for example, Orrin Keepnews, review of The Horn, by John Clellon Holmes, Jazz Review 1, no 1 (1958): 42–3. Some poets made similar complaints; Kenneth Rexroth, one of the first to read his poems to a jazz background, complained that the Beats saw jazz only as "savage jungle drums and horns blowing up a storm around the flickering fire while the missionary soup comes to a boil." Kenneth Rexroth, "Revolt: True and False," Nation, April 26, 1958, 378. 96. Morris Dickstein, Leopards in the Temple: The Transformation of American Fiction, 1945–1970 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 86–7; W. T. Lhamon, Jr., Deliberate Speed: The Origins of a Cultural Style in the American 1950s (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990); Daniel Belgrad, The Culture of Spontaneity: Improvisation and the Arts in Postwar America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998); and Lewis MacAdams, Birth of the Cool: Beat, Bebop, and the American Avant‐Garde (New York: Free Press, 2001). 97. Scott DeVeaux, The Birth of Bebop: A Social and Musical History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 26. 98. The former position is most common among conservative writers, the latter among those with the most at stake in their own hip identiti