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Science and the arts in William Henry's research into inflammable air during the Early Nineteenth Century

2013; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 71; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/00033790.2013.783108

1464-505X

Leslie Tomory,

History of Science and Natural History

SummaryHistorians have explored the continuities between science and the arts in the Industrial Revolution, with much recent historiography emphasizing the hybrid nature of the activities of men of science around 1800. Chemistry in particular displayed this sort of hybridity between the philosophical and practical because the materials under investigation were important across the research spectrum. Inflammable gases were an example of such hybrid objects: pneumatic chemists through the eighteenth century investigated them, and in the process created knowledge, processes and instruments essential for the creation of a new gaslight industry from 1800. Once this industry began to expand and mature, the interests and experiments of the gas industry stimulated new research work which in turn had relevance for theoretical debates.This paper explores how the emergence of the gas industry from 1800 provided an impetus for new work in theoretical chemistry. Boulton & Watt, important pioneers of the gas industry, explored the compositions of inflammable gases for practical purposes: the composition of these gases had an important effect on the luminosity of gaslights, and hence the economics of the new technology compared to older forms of lighting. As they explored these questions in their engineering work, they stimulated their friend William Henry to explore the nature of these gases further, and he carried out a series of experiments to determine their composition more exactly than Boulton & Watt had done. Henry published a series of paper between 1805 and 1820 where he made arguments about the compositions of inflammable airs, and further related these to contemporary debates about the laws of multiple and definite proportions, as well as John Dalton's atomism. Henry's research was also a hybrid of the theoretical and practical in that he tried to develop results useful for the fledgling gas industry. Specifically, he suggested the best kind of coal to use, and showed how gas quality varied with distillation time and temperature. AcknowledgementsI would like to thank Don Nerbas, Brian Lewis, Ursula Klein and Victor Boantza for their comments on this paper. I would also like to thank the referees for their comments.Notes1 A. Rupert Hall, ‘What did the Industrial Revolution in Britain owe to science?’, in Historical perspectives: studies in English thought and society, in honour of J. H. Plumb, edited by Neil McKendrick (London: Europa, 1974), 129–51. A. E. Musson and E. Robinson, ‘Science and Industry in the Late Eighteenth Century’, The Economic History Review, 13 no. 2 (1960), 222–44. A. E. Musson and Eric Robinson, Science and technology in the Industrial Revolution (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1969). Ulrich Wengenroth, ‘Science, technology, and industry’, in From natural philosophy to the sciences : writing the history of nineteenth-century science, edited by David Cahan (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003), 221–53. Edwin Layton, ‘Mirror-Image Twins: The Communities of Science and Technology in 19th-Century America’, Technology and Culture, 12, no. 4 (1971), 562–80.2 Lissa Louise Roberts, Simon Schaffer, and Peter Robert Dear, The mindful hand : inquiry and invention from the late Renaissance to early industrialisation (Amsterdam: Edita, 2007). Peter M. Jones, Industrial enlightenment : Science, technology and culture in Birmingham and the west Midlands, 1760–1820 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2008), 17. L. Stewart (Footnotenote 11).3 Ursula Klein, ‘Technoscience avant la lettre’, Perspectives on science 13, no. 2 (2005), 226–66. See also Bernadette Bensaude-Vincent and Jonathan Simon, Chemistry the impure science (London: Imperial College Press, 2008), ch. 6. Ursula Klein and Wolfgang Lefèvre, Materials in eighteenth-century science : a historical ontology (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2007), 302–5.4 David Philip Miller, James Watt, chemist : understanding the origins of the steam age (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2009), ch. 4 and 5.5 Leslie Tomory, ‘The origins of gaslight technology in eighteenth-century pneumatic chemistry’, Annals of Science 66 no. 4 (2009), 473–96.6 Leslie Tomory, ‘Fostering a new industry in the Industrial Revolution: Boulton & Watt and gaslight 1800–1812’, British Journal for the History of Science, 46 no. 2 (2013), 199–229.7 William Henry and Thomas Henry, ‘Experiments on carbonated hydrogenous gas; with a view to determine whether carbon be a simple or a compound substance. By Mr. William Henry. Communicated by Mr. Thomas Henry, F. R. S’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 87 (1797), 401–15. William Henry, ‘A Review of some Experiments which have been supposed to Disprove the Materiality of Heat’, Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester 5, Part 2 (1802), 603–21, 79. W. V. Farrar, Kathleen R. Farrar and E. L. Scottt, ‘The Henrys of Manchester Part 1: Thomas Henry (1734–1816)’, Ambix 20, no. 3 (1973), 183–208: 202. W. V. Farrar, K. R. Farrar and E. L. Scott, ‘The Henrys of Manchester. Part 4: William Henry: Hydrocarbons and the Gas Industry: Minor Chemical Papers’, Ambix, 22, no. 3 (1975), 186–204.8 Frank Greenaway, ‘Henry, William (1774–1836)’, in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, edited by H. C. G. Matthew, Brian Harrison and Lawrence Goldman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004). On the magnesia factory, see W. V. Farrar, Kathleen R. Farrar and E. L. Scott, ‘The Henrys of Manchester. Part 6. William Charles Henry: The Magnesia Factory’, Ambix, 24, no. 1 (1977), 1–26: 11ff.9 Robert E. Schofield, The Lunar Society of Birmingham; a social history on provincial science and industry in eighteenth-century England (Oxford: Clarendon, 1963). Jennifer S. Uglow, The lunar men : the friends who made the future, 1730–1810 (London: Faber and Faber, 2002). P. Jones (Footnotenote 2). D. Milller (Footnotenote 2).10 M. Yakup Bektas and Maurice Crosland, ‘The Copley Medal: The Establishment of a Reward System in the Royal Society, 1731–1839,’ Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London (1992) 46, no. 1, 43–76.11 Wilfred Vernon Farrar, Chemistry and the chemical industry in the 19th century : the Henrys of Manchester and other studies (Brookfield, VT: Variorum, 1997). F. Greenaway (Footnotenote 8). On Henry's connection to B&W see: Larry Stewart, ‘Experimental Spaces and the Knowledge Economy’, History of Science 45 (2007), 155–77: 171–2.12 William Austin and Charles Blagden, ‘Experiments on the Analysis of the Heavy Inflammable Air. By William Austin, M. D. Fellow of the College of Physicians; Communicated by Charles Blagden, M. D. Sec. R. S’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 80 (1790), 51–72. W. Henry and T. Henry (Footnotenote 7). E. L. Scott, ‘Dalton and William Henry’, in John Dalton & the progress of science, edited by Donald Cardwell (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1968), 220–39: 226.13 Arnold Thackray, ‘Natural Knowledge in Cultural Context: The Manchester Mode’, The American Historical Review, 79, no. 3 (1974), 672–709: 699–701. W. Farrar (Footnotenote 11). William Henry, ‘Experiments on the Gas from Coal, Chiefly with a View to its Practical Application’, Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, 2nd series, 3 (1819), 391–429: 397.14 A. Thackray (Footnotenote 13). For the Birmingham case, see R. Schofield (Footnotenote 9). P. Jones (Footnotenote 2), 82–6. See also Roy Porter, ‘Science, provincial culture and public opinion in Enlightenment England’, Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies, 3, no. 1 (1980), 20–46.15 W. Henry and T. Henry (Footnotenote 7). W. Henry (Footnotenote 7), 79.16 Leslie Tomory, Progressive Enlightenment: the origins of the gaslight industry, 1780–1820 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2012), ch. 3.17 J. J. Mason, ‘Lee, George Augustus (1761–1826)’, in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, edited by H. C. G. Matthew, Brian Harrison and Lawrence Goldman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004). For some other details about Philips & Lee see William Murdoch, ‘An account of the application of the gas from coal to economical purposes’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 98 (1808), 124–32.18 Philips & Lee to B&W 1803/07/19, Boulton & Watt Archives (hereafter BWA) MS 3147/5/804, in the Birmingham Central Library.19 William Henry, ‘Experiments on the gases obtained by the destructive distillation of pit coal, & c., with a view to the theory of their combustion when employed as sources of artificial light’, A Journal of natural philosophy, chemistry and the arts, 11 (1805), 65–74: 65–6.20 William Henry, ‘Response to Mr. Northern’, The Monthly magazine, or, British register, 19, no. 128 (1805), 313. William Matthews, An historical sketch of the origin, progress, & present state of gas-lighting (London: R. Hunter, 1827), 37–8.21 Friedrich Christian Accum, Description of the process of manufacturing coal gas for the lighting of streets houses, and public buildings, 2nd ed. (London: Printed for Thomas Boys, 1820), 291. This is a revised version of his 1815 book on gas lighting, which does not cite Henry.22 For a description of Volta's eudiometer see Marco Beretta, ‘Pneumatics vs. “Aerial Medicine”: Salubrity and Respirability of Air at the End of the Eighteenth Century’, in Nuova Voltiana : studies on Volta and his times (Vol. 2), edited by Fabio Bevilacqua and Lucio Fregonese (Milano, Pavia: Università degli studi di Pavia, Editore Ulrico Hoepli, 2000). See also Simon Schaffer, ‘Measuring virtue. Eudiometry, enlightenment and pneumatic medicine’, in The medical enlightenment of the eighteenth century, edited by Andrew Cunningham and Roger French (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 281–318.23 The experiments are described in 1805/07/13–15 James Watt jr notebook, BWA MS 3147/4/5 p. 54–55 and 1808/01/28, BWA MS 3147/3/479 #12.24 Eidingtoun Hutton to B&W 1805/07/01, BWA MS 3147/3/263 #7.25 W. Murdoch (Footnotenote 17), 126. Frederick Christian Accum, A practical treatise on gas-light; exhibiting a summary description of the apparatus and machinery best calculated for illuminating streets, houses, and manufactories, with carburetted hydrogen, or coal-gas (London: Printed by G. Hayden for R. Ackermann, 1815), 128–9. Thomas S. Peckston, The theory and practice of gas-lighting : in which is exhibited an historical sketch of the rise and progress of the science, and the theories of light, combustion, and formation of coal (London: Printed for Thomas and George Underwood, 1819), 64, 104. Samuel Clegg, A practical treatise on the manufacture and distribution of coal-gas : its introduction and progressive improvement (London: J. Weale, 1841), 37. Samuel Hughes, A treatise on gas-works and the practice of manufacturing and distributing coal gas : with some account of the most improved methods of distilling coal in iron, brick, and clay retorts, and of the various modes adopted for purifying coal gas (London: J. Weale, 1853), 308–9.26 Robert E. Schofield, The enlightenment of Joseph Priestley : a study of his life and work from 1733 to 1773 (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997), 264.27 Alessandro Volta, Lettere del Signor Don Alessandro Volta … sull'aria infiammabile nativa delle paludi (Milano: Nella stamperia di G. Marelli, 1777).28 Claude-Louis Berthollet, ‘Suite des recherches sur la nature des substances animales, et sur leurs rapports avec les substances végétables’, Histoire de l'Académie royale des sciences (1785 [1788]), 331–49.29 For the complete details see Leslie Tomory, ‘Let it burn: distinguishing inflammable airs 1766–1790’, Ambix, 56 (2009), 253–72.30 Antoine-François Fourcroy, ‘Extrait d'un mémoire sur trois espèces différentes de gaz hydrogène carboné’, Annales de chimie, ou, Recueil de mémoires concernant la chimie et les arts qui en dépendent, 21 (1797), 48–71.31 Antoine-François Fourcroy, ‘Extrait d'un mémoire sur trois espèces différentes de gaz hydrogène carboné’, Annales de chimie, ou, Recueil de mémoires concernant la chimie et les arts qui en dépendent, 21 (1797), 48–71.32 William Cruikshank, ‘Some observations on different hydrocarbonate and combinations of carbone with oxygen’, Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the Arts, 5 (1801), 1–9. Charles-Bernard Desormes and Nicolas Clément, ‘Découverte d'un gaz nouveau’, Annales de chimie, 38 (1801), 287–9. Charles-Bernard Desormes and Nicolas Clément, ‘Sur la réduction de l'oxide blanc de zinc par le charbon et sur le gaz oxide de carbone qui s'en dégage’, Annales de chimie, 39 (1801), 26–64.33 Claude-Louis Berthollet, ‘Observations sur le charbon et les gaz hydrogènes carbonés’, Mémoires de l'Institut national des sciences et arts. Sciences mathématiques et physique, 4 (1802), 269–333: 269–71.34 Claude-Louis Berthollet, ‘Sur les lois d'affinité’, Annales de chimie, 36 (1801), 302–17: 303–5. Claude-Louis Berthollet, Recherches sur les lois de l'affinité (Paris: Baudouin, imprimeur de l'Institut national des sciences & des arts, 1801). Satish C. Kapoor, ‘Berthollet, Proust, and Proportions’, Chymia, 10 (1965), 53–110: 54.35 Joseph-Louis Proust, ‘Recherches sur le bleu de Prusse’, Observations sur la physique, sur l'histoire naturelle et sur les arts, 45 (1794), 334–41. Joseph-Louis Proust, ‘Éxtrait d'un mémoire intitulé: Recherches sur le bleu de Prusse’, Annales de chimie et de physique, 23 (1797), 85–99.36 Other Proust papers include Joseph-Louis Proust, ‘Recherches sur l’étain’, Annales de chimie, 28 (1798), 213–23. Joseph-Louis Proust, ‘Sur quelques sulfures métalliques’, Observations sur la physique, sur l'histoire naturelle et sur les arts, 53 (1801), 89–97. Joseph-Louis Proust, ‘Sur les sulfures natifs et artificiels du fer’, Observations sur la physique, sur l'histoire naturelle et sur les arts, 54 (1802), 89–95. Joseph-Louis Proust, ‘Sur les sulfures metalliques’, Observations sur la physique, sur l'histoire naturelle et sur les arts, 59 (1804), 260–5. Joseph-Louis Proust, ‘Sur les sulfures alkalins’, Observations sur la physique, sur l'histoire naturelle et sur les arts, 59 (1804), 265–73. Many of these were translated and published in English journals.37 Claude-Louis Berthollet, Essai de statique chimique, 2 vols (Paris: F. Didot, 1803). Claude-Louis Berthollet, ‘Sur les lois d'affinité’, Annales de chimie, 36 (1801), 302–17: 303–5. Kiyohisa Fujii, ‘The Berthollet-Proust Controversy and Dalton's Chemical Atomic Theory 1800–1820’, The British Journal for the History of Science, 19, no. 2 (1986), 177–200: 193. S. Kapoor (Footnotenote 34), 75–6.38 Seymour H. Mauskopf, ‘Proust, Joseph Louis’, Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography (Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008). Richard Kirwan had worked on an affinity theory that incorporated combining proportions in the early 1780s. Henry Guerlac has claimed that this theory was a pre-cursor to Dalton's atomic theory. Henry Guerlac, ‘The Background to Dalton's Atomic Theory’, in John Dalton & the progress of science, edited by Donald Cardwell (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1968), 57–91. Georgette Taylor has, however, argued that although this work contained combining proportions in some way, Kirwan did not present his work as a form of equivalence theory, but rather as affinity theory. Nor was it received by Kirwan's contemporaries in the context of combining proportions. Georgette Taylor, ‘Tracing Influence in Small Steps: Richard Kirwan's Quantified Affinity Theory’, Ambix, 55, no. 3 (2008), 209–31: esp. 231.39 W. Henry (Footnotenote 19), 68–9.40 He does so with carbon and hydrogen ibid., p. 68., and with oxygen and carbon on p. 66.41 Thomas Thomson, A system of chemistry (Edinburgh: Printed by J. Brown, 1802), vol. 1, 116. J. B. Morrell, ‘Thomas Thomson: Professor of Chemistry and University Reformer’, The British Journal for the History of Science, 4, no. 3 (1969), 245–65. E. Scott (Footnotenote 12). K. Fujii (Footnotenote 37), 195.42 F. Greenaway (Footnotenote 8). Frank Greenaway, ‘Dalton, John (1766–1844)’, in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, edited by H. C. G. Matthew, Brian Harrison and Lawrence Goldman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004). Arnold Thackray, ‘Dalton, John’, in Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography (Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008). E. L. Scott, ‘Henry, William’, in Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography (Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008). Arnold Thackray, John Dalton; critical assessments of his life and science, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1972), 30, 58, 80–2.43 K. Fujii (Footnotenote 37), 195. E. Scott (Footnotenote 12), 233.44 E. Scott (Footnotenote 12), 226. A. Thackray 1972 (Footnotenote 42), especially 77, and also 80–2.45 A. Thackray 2008 (Footnotenote 42).46 K. Fujii (Footnotenote 37), 195. E. Scott (Footnotenote 12), 225, 226, 233. A. Thackray 2008 (Footnotenote 42).47 A. Thackray 1972 (Footnotenote 42), 30.48 K. Fujii (Footnotenote 37), 184. E. Scott (Footnotenote 12), 233. A. Thackray 1972 (Footnotenote 42), 80.49 A. Thackray 2008 (Footnotenote 42). Claude-Louis Berthollet, Essai de statique chimique, 2 vols (Paris: F. Didot, 1803), vol 1, 499.50 L. Tomory (Footnotenote 16)., ch. 3–4.51 William Henry, ‘Description of an Apparatus for the Analysis of the Compound Inflammable Gases by Slow Combustion; With Experiments on the Gas from Coal, Explaining Its Application’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 98 (1808), 282–303: 286.52 Claude-Louis Berthollet, ‘Suite des observations sur les gaz inflammables’, Mémoires de physique et de chimie de la Société d'Arcueil, 3 (1817), 148–64: 151.53 Henry Creighton to B&W 1807/12/28, BWA MS 3147/3/247 #40a; George Augustus Lee to B&W 1807/12/28, BWA MS 3147/3/247 #40b; Henry Creighton to B&W 1808/01/10, BWA MS 3147/3/247 #41; James Watt jr to Henry Creighton 1808/01/19, BWA MS 3147/3/478 #17; George Augustus Lee to James Watt jr 1808/01/20, BWA MS 3147/3/478 #18; Henry Creighton to B&W 1808/01/25, BWA MS 3147/3/247 #43; George Augustus Lee to James Watt jr 1808/02/04, BWA MS 3147/3/478 #18; Experiments on the new light 1808/01, BWA MS 3147/3/479 #11.54 W. Murdoch (Footnotenote 17). L. Tomory (Footnotenote 6).55 W. Henry (Footnotenote 51).56 George Augustus Lee to Boulton & Watt 1807/12/28, BWA MS 3147/3/247 #40b.57 George Augustus Lee to James Watt jr 1808/01/20, BWA MS 3147/3/478 #18.58 Henry Henry Creighton to B&W 1808/01/10, BWA MS 3147/3/247 #41.59 James Watt jr to Henry Creighton 1808/01/19, BWA MS 3147/3/478 #17.60 George Augustus Lee to James Watt jr 1808/02/04, BWA MS 3147/3/478 #18.61 C. Berthollet (Footnotenote 33), 317.62 W. Henry (Footnotenote 51), 282.63 W. Henry (Footnotenote 51), 282.64 W. Henry (Footnotenote 51), 284–5, 292–3.65 W. Henry (Footnotenote 51), 283. Early gas authors discussed similar results: T. Peckston (Footnotenote 25), 146–7.66 W. Henry (Footnotenote 51), 297–8.67 T. Peckston (Footnotenote 25), 377. F. Accum (Footnotenote 25), 131–2.68 Théodore de Saussure, ‘Sur la décomposition du gaz carboneux par le gaz hydrogène’, Journal de physique, de chimie d'histoire naturelle et des arts, 55 (1802), 396. W. Cruikshank (Footnotenote 32).69 Claude-Louis Berthollet, ‘Nouvelles observations sur les gaz inflammables désignés par les noms d'hydrogène carburé et d'hydrogène oxicarburé’, Mémoires de physique et de chimie de la Société d'Arcueil, 2 (1809), 68–93: 69, 89. K. Fujii (Footnotenote 37), 187. S. Kapoor (Footnotenote 34), 107.70 C. Bertollet (Footnotenote 69), 69–70.71 C. Bertollet (Footnotenote 69), 70–71.72 C. Bertollet (Footnotenote 69), 83–6.73 John Dalton, A new system of chemical philosophy (Manchester: R. Bickerstaff, 1808), part 2, 437–50. Actually 1810. K. Fujii (Footnotenote 37), 187.74 J. Dalton (Footnotenote 73), part 2, 441, 447–8. W. Henry (Footnotenote 51), 285.75 J. R. Partington, A History of Chemistry (London: Macmillan; New York, St. Martin's Press, 1961), vol. 3, 653. William Henry, The elements of experimental chemistry, 7th greatly enl. … with nine plates engraved by Lowry. ed., 2 vols. (London: Printed for Baldwin, Cradock and Joy, and for R. Hunter, 1815), vol. 1, 40–50.76 F. Accum (Footnotenote 25). Accum, Description of the process of manufacturing coal gas, 1819. T. Peckston (Footnotenote 25).77 W. Henry (Footnotenote 13), 397.78 W. Henry (Footnotenote 13), 398.79 W. Henry (Footnotenote 13), 403, 404, 407, 409.80 W. Henry (Footnotenote 13), 411–9.81 William Henry, ‘On the Aeriform Compounds of Charcoal and Hydrogen; With an Account of Some Additional Experiments on the Gases from Oil and from Coal’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 111 (1821), 136–61: 138.82 John Murray, Elements of chemistry (Edinburgh: Printed for W. Creech, 1810), vol. 1, 478. Can combine ‘perhaps in indefinite proportions’.83 Thomas Thomson, A system of chemistry, Fourth edition (Edinburgh: Bell & Bradfute, 1810), vol. 1, 48–65. Thomson was in personal contact with Henry over this question: Thomas Thomson, ‘On the Gaseous Combinations of Hidrogen and Carbon’, A Journal of natural philosophy, chemistry and the arts, 28, no. Supplement (1811), 321–35: 325.84 T. Thomson 1811 (Footnotenote 83).85 T. Thomson 1811 (Footnotenote 83), 328, 332, 335.86 K. Fujii (Footnotenote 37), 195–9. e.g. Andrew and William Nicholson Ure A dictionary of chemistry: on the basis of Mr. Nicholson's (London: Underwood, 1821). Samuel Parkes, A chemical catechism : with notes, illustrations, and experiments, 8th, (London: Printed for the author by Baldwin, Cradock & Joy, etc., 1818), 251–2.87 C. Bertholet (Footnotenote 52).88 John Murray, A system of chemistry, Fourth edition, 4 vols. (Edinburgh: Printed for Francis Pillans, no. 13 Hanover Street, and for Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme & Brown, London, 1819), vol. 2, 341–60. J. D. Murray, Elements of chemistry. In two volumes, The 4th ed., 2 vols (Edinburgh: Printed for F. Pillans; and for Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, & Brown, London, 1817), vol. 1, 465–72. K. Fujii (Footnotenote 37), 196–7.89 William Thomas Brande, ‘The Bakerian Lecture: On the Composition and Analysis of the Inflammable Gaseous Compounds Resulting from the Destructive Distillation of Coal and Oil, with Some Remarks on Their Relative Heating and Illuminating Powers’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 110 (1820), 11–28.90 William Thomas Brande, A manual of chemistry : containing the principal facts of the science ; arranged in the order in which they are discussed and illustrated in the lectures at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, 1st ed. (London: J. Murray, 1819), 156.91 W. Henry (Footnotenote 81), 138.92 W. Henry (Footnotenote 81), to 142.93 W. Henry (Footnotenote 81), to 142.94 Benjamin Silliman, Elements of chemistry, in the order of the lectures given in Yale College, 2 vols. (New Haven, CT: H. Howe, 1830), vol. 1, 399. Edward Turner, Elements of chemistry, including the recent discoveries and doctrines of the science, 1st American, from the First London ed. (Philadelphia: J. Grigg, 1828), 194, Thomas Curtis, ed. The London encyclopaedia or, Universal dictionary of science, art, literature, and practical mechanics, comprising a popular view of the present state of knowledge (London: Printed for T. Tegg,1829), vol. 5, 405. Arthur Aikin and Charles Rochemont Aikin, A dictionary of chemistry and mineralogy with an account of the processes employed in many of the most important chemical manufactures (London: Printed for John and Arthur Arch, Cornhill, 1807), vol. 2, 91–2. Lewis C. Beck, A manual of chemistry; containing a condensed view of the present state of the science (Albany, NY: Webster and Skinners, 1831), 203. Thomas Thomson, A system of chemistry of inorganic bodies, 7th ed. (London: Baldwin & Cradock, 1831), vol. 1, 190.95 W. Matthews (Footnotenote 20), 37–8. S. Clegg (Footnotenote 25), 45. Samuel Clegg, A practical treatise on the manufacture and distribution of coal-gas,: its introduction and progressive improvement; illustrated by engravings from working drawings, with general estimates (London: Weale, 1853), 92–3. E. Robert d’ Hurcourt, De l’éclairage au gaz : déveleppements sur la composition des gaz destinés a l’éclairage, sur la construction des fourneaux et cheminées, sur la pose des tuyaux, sur les phénomènes de la lumière, etc (Paris: Carilian-Goeury et Vor Dalmont, 1845), 19–20, 25, 28–9, 32–3. S. Hughes (Footnotenote 25), 26–30, 36–40. See also Lewis Thompson, The chemistry of gas lighting; a collection of fragments from vols. II. and III. of “The Journal of gas lighting”, revised and rearranged (London: The Journal of gas lighting, 1860), 64–5.