Norwegian friluftsliv and ideals of becoming an ‘educated man’
2008; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 8; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/14729670802097619
ISSN1754-0402
Autores Tópico(s)Animal and Plant Science Education
ResumoClick to increase image sizeClick to decrease image sizeKeywords: NatureGenderEducationTradition Acknowledgements The author is grateful to the Norwegian Research Council, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences and Finnmark University College for supporting the research underpinning this paper. Special thanks to Siri Gerrard, University of Tromsø for her supervision, critical commentary and academic collaboration over many years. Mary Jones, University of Tromsø has translated the original Norwegian text (Gurholt, 2007 Gurholt, K. P. 2007. "Askeladden – vegviser i friluftslivets og maskulinitetens kulturhistorie [The Ash-lad – a guide to the cultural history of friluftsliv and masculinity]. A. McD. Sookermany, &". In Friluftsmannen, veglederen, klatreren og naturfilosofen Nils Faarlund, Edited by: Eriksen, J. W. 288–300. Oslo: GAN Aschehoug. [Google Scholar]) into English on which the paper is further developed. The insightful comments of two reviewers are sincerely appreciated; these helped with clarifying structure and arguments. An early version of the paper was presented at the International Association of the Sociology of Sport's Symposium in Oslo, 28 June–1 July 1997. Notes 1. The 'everyman's right' allows the population to move freely, also on uncultivated private land and to pick mushrooms, flowers and berries, and with some restrictions to go fishing and hunting. Included is also the right to tent for a short period of time, and a general obligation to be considerate. This right is a recognized judicial principle, established in an Act of Parliament (1957). 2. In the few cases where male dominance nevertheless has been openly discussed, it was mostly evolutionary and biologically determined explanations that were employed (Pedersen, 1999 Pedersen , K. (1999). 'Det har bare vært naturlig!' . Friluftsliv , kjønn og kulturelle brytninger ['It has just been natural!' Friluftsliv, gender, cultural change and discourse] (Doctoral dissertation, Norges idrettshøgskole, Oslo). [Google Scholar]). This interpretation framework fits within what Macfarlane (2003 Macfarlane, R. 2003. Mountains of the mind. A history of a fascination, London: Granta Books. [Google Scholar], p. 90) terms 'masculine Darwinism', which heavily influenced upon British and European mountaineering from the mid-nineteenth century onwards. It also fits with Connell (1995 Connell, R. W. 1995. Masculinities, Cambridge: Polity Press. [Google Scholar]), who claims that socio-biology's scientific theoretical basis has generally had wide-ranging consequences for the understanding of masculinity and the order of rank between males in Western thought. 3. Askeladden is the main character in several Norwegian folk tales; dynamic, smart, creative, individualistic, free-thinking, and knowledgeable – an adventurer and a hero who always succeeds when others fail (Hodne, 1999 Hodne, Ø. 1999. "Midgard og Utgard. Natursynet i norske folkeeventyr og sagn [The image of nature in Norwegian folk tales and legends]". In Naturhistorier. Naturoppfatning, menneskesyn og poetikk i skandinavisk litteratur, Edited by: Lærkesen, I., Bache-Wiig, H. and Lombnæs, A. 19–36. Oslo: Cappelen Akademisk Forlag. [Google Scholar]). de Figueiredo (2006 de Figueiredo, I. 2006. Henrik Ibsen. Mennesket [Henrik Ibsen. The human being], Oslo: Aschehoug. [Google Scholar], p. 338) sees Askeladden as a parallel to Alladin in ancient mythology. 4. Four selected key texts from Faarlund's productive output have been closely studied. These texts are in English translation: What, how, why friluftsliv (1974), Askeladden (1987), Friluftsliv – a way home (1993) and Nature-life philosophical thoughts in folk-tale times (2000) and might be seen as representative of, respectively, early authorship, 'mid-point in life', international breakthrough and 'afterthoughts'. 5. Moland (1997 Moland, T. 1997. Fridtjof Nansen. En mann [Fridtjof Nansen. A man], Oslo: Master's dissertation, Universitetet i Oslo. [Google Scholar]) further maintains that Nansen's predilection for being first is strongly inspired by the biologist and Darwinist Ernst Hackel's claim that the struggle for existence 'must be hard'; a struggle which ensures that mankind's best qualities are brought forth. 6. This specific folk tale involves rescuing a princess held captive in a land east of the sun and west of the moon. Askeladden is typically portrayed as the youngest of three brothers. The older two try first to heroically overcome some major crises or problem to rescue the princess but fail. Their conventional ways of thinking is seen to be the main reason for this. In contrast, Askeladden comes up with creative solutions so that he can outwit trolls, etc., and also find a smart way to climb the Glass Mountain. 7. At around the same time, Ibsen wrote his poem Højfjeldsliv [Alpine life], which idealizes mountain folk and life in the summer mountain pastures. The quotation here is taken from one of the final stanzas and reproduced in Ibsen (1859/1991a Ibsen, H. 1991a. "Paa vidderne [On the heights]". In Henrik Ibsen. Samlede verker, Vol. 2, 479–483. Oslo: Den norske bokklubben. (Original work published 1859) [Google Scholar]). 8. During the summers of, for example, 1856 and 1862 Ibsen walked in the mountains and among other things collected stories and legends that would later be used, e.g. in Brand and Peer Gynt. The young hunter in Paa vidderne is often seen as a romantic predecessor to Peer Gynt. de Figueiredo (2006 de Figueiredo, I. 2006. Henrik Ibsen. Mennesket [Henrik Ibsen. The human being], Oslo: Aschehoug. [Google Scholar], p. 247) characterizes Kjærlighetens komedie as Ibsen's first contemporary drama. 9. Hegge (1990 Hegge, H. 1990. "Det moderne friluftsliv i historisk og filosofisk perspektiv [Modern friluftsliv – a historical and philosophical perspective]". In Momenter til en dypere naturvernforståelse, Edited by: Andersen, G. 43–57. Oslo: Vett & Viten. [Google Scholar]) argues that the history of how nature is conceptualized in modern Norwegian friluftsliv must be traced back to the fundamental changes in European civilization since the late Middle Ages; to how people's relationship to nature changed from mythical consciousness to an attitude of conquest, from being dependent on nature to liberation from it. 10. The Doll's house was highly controversial when first published, as it sharply criticized the nineteenth century marriage norms. It is often called the first true feminist play and is perhaps Ibsen's most famous play. The first English production was in 1893. Nora is of Latin origin, meaning 'the bright one'. 11. Thus the misunderstanding linked to the slogan 'back to nature', subsequently used, amongst others, by progressive and anti-authoritarian educationalists in the 1970s, becomes visible. 12. Poetic derives from the Greek poiesis, which signifies creative production (Løvlie, 1990 Løvlie, L. 1990. Den estetiske erfaring [Aesthetical experiences]. Nordisk pedagogikk, 1(2): 1–18. [Google Scholar]).
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