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Globalisation, world trade and the cultural commons: Identity, citizenship and pluralism

2006; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 11; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/13563460600840217

1469-9923

Daniel Drache, Marc D. Froese,

World Trade Organization Law

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1. Dick Stanley, ‘The Three Faces of Culture: Why Culture Is a Strategic Good Requiring Policy Attention’, in Caroline Andrew, Monica Gattinger, M. Sharon Jeannotte & Will Straw (eds), Accounting for Culture: Thinking through Cultural Citizenship (University of Ottawa Press, 2005). Researchers and social thinkers have used hundreds of definitions of culture. Always, definitions of the term say more about the cultural context of the thinker than they do about the thing itself, as Stanley points out. 2. Joseph E. Stiglitz & Andrew Charlton, ‘The Development Round of Trade Negotiations in the Aftermath of Cancun: A Report for the Commonwealth Secretariat’, Initiative for Policy Dialogue, Columbia University, 2004, http://www.commonwealth.org. 3. Daniel Drache, Borders Matter: Homeland Security and the Search for North America (Fernwood Publishing, 2004). 4. John Tomlinson, Globalization and Culture (University of Chicago Press, 1999). 5. Jagdish Bhagwati, ‘Afterword: The Question of Linkage’, The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 96, No. 1 (2002), pp. 126–34. 6. Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (New American Library, 1964). 7. Nestor García Canclini, Consumers and Citizens: Globalization and Multicultural Conflicts (University of Minnesota Press, 2001). 8. Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (University of Minnesota Press, 1996). 9. Daniel Drache, ‘The Political Economy of Dissent: Global Publics after Cancun’, Robarts Centre for Canadian Studies, York University, January 2004, http://www.robarts.yorku.ca. 10. Daniel Drache & Marc D. Froese, ‘The Great Global Poverty Debate: Balancing Private Interests and the Public Good at the WTO’, Robarts Centre for Canadian Studies, York University, 2003 http://www.robarts.yorku.ca; Branko Milanovic, Worlds Apart: Measuring International and Global Inequality (Princeton University Press, 2005). 11. Recorded music is considered a ‘performance’, and protected for 50 years. Once it enters the public domain, it is free for anyone to download, share or sample. Musical composition is further protected by copyright law. The written score for a piece of music is protected for the duration of the artist's lifetime, and then for 70 years after death, as per the US Copyright Extension Act of 1998. Some countries protect for even longer. 12. Articles 41 and 61 in Part III of the TRIPS Agreement. 13. Sol Picciotto, ‘Private Rights vs. Public Standards in the WTO’, Review of International Political Economy, Vol. 10, No. 3 (2003), pp. 377–405. 14. Naomi Klein, No Logo: Taking Aim at the Brand Bullies (Knopf Canada, 2000). 15. Tim Burt, ‘Quotas Fail to Save European Producers from an Influx of US Television Shows’, Financial Times, 27 May 2005. 16. PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP, ‘Global Media and Entertainment Outlook: 2004–2008’, http://www.pwc.com/outlook (accessed 14 July 2004). 17. George Yudice, The Expediency of Culture: Uses of Culture in the Global Era (Duke University Press, 2003). 18. Gautam Malkani, ‘Copyright's Haven of Stability’, Financial Times, 17 November 2004. 19. Lawrence Lessig, Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity (Penguin, 2004). 20. Mickey Kantor, ‘Film Pirates Are Robbing Us All’, Financial Times, 18 November 2004. 21. In the Canadian context, however, the judicial outcome has been different. In a unanimous 9–0 decision on 30 June 2004, the Supreme Count of Canada ruled that Internet service providers (ISPs) are not responsible for paying royalties on music downloaded by users, because they only supply the technology and are not responsible for the actions of their clients. An earlier lower court decision reached the same verdict and that ruling was upheld by the Federal Court of Appeal in May 2005. 22. PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP, ‘Global Media and Entertainment Outlook’. 23. Kantor, ‘Film Pirates’. 24. UK Film Council, ‘The Indian Media and Entertainment Industry’, www.ukfilmcouncil.org.uk/filmindustry/india/ (accessed 15 October 2004). 25. Canclini, Consumers and Citizens. 26. Canada – Measures Affecting Film Distribution Services, WT/DS 117 (1998), www.wto.org/english/tratop-e/dispu-e/dispu-status_e.htm/. Turkey – Taxation of Foreign Film Revenues, WT/DS 43 (1996), www.wto.org/english/tratop-e/dispu-e/dispu-status_e.htm/. 27. Peter S. Grant & Chris Wood, Blockbusters and Trade Wars: Popular Culture in a Globalized World (Douglas & McIntyre, 2004). 28. J. H. H. Weiler, ‘The Rule of Lawyers and the Ethos of Diplomats: Reflections on the Internal and External Legitimacy of WTO Dispute Settlement’, Paper presented at the Jean Monnet Seminar and Workshop on The European Union, NAFTA, and the WTO: Advanced Issues in Law and Policy, Harvard Law School, Cambridge, MA, September 2000. 29. Daniel Drache, Marco Morra & Marc D. Froese, ‘Global Cultural Flows and the Technological Information Grid: An Empirical Examination’, Robarts Centre for Canadian Studies, York University, Toronto, 2004, http://www.robarts.yorku.ca. 30. PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP, ‘Global Media and Entertainment Outlook’. 31. European Communities/Greece – Motion Pictures, TV, Enforcement, WT/DS124, 125 (1998), www.wto.org/english/tratop-e/dispu-e/dispu-status_e.htm/. 32. Lessig, Free Culture. 33. Ibid. 34. Lessig, Free Culture, p. 305. 35. PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP, ‘Global Media and Entertainment Outlook’. 36. David Throsby, Economics and Culture (Cambridge University Press, 2001). 37. See the website of the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry at www.ifpi.org for more statistics on music piracy. 38. PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP, ‘Global Media and Entertainment Outlook’. 39. Malkani, ‘Copyright's Haven of Stability’. 40. Japan – Measures Concerning Sound Recordings (WT/DS 28/42). 41. Ivan Bernier, ‘Catalogue of International Principles Pertaining to Culture’, Laval University Faculty of Law, Quebec City, 2000. 42. For example, in France newspapers are tightly regulated and generously subsidised by the government, to the extent that reporters on assignment receive half-price fares on French railways. 43. Canada – Certain Measures Concerning Periodicals, DS 31 (1996), www.wto.org/english/tratop-e/dispu-e/dispu-status_e.htm/. 44. Keith Acheson & Christopher Maule, Much Ado About Culture: North American Trade Disputes (University of Michigan Press, 1999). 45. Daniel Schwanen, ‘A Room of Our Own: Cultural Policies and Trade Agreements’, Choices: Managing Global Linkages, Institute for Research on Public Policy, Ottawa, 2001. 46. Since the GATT came into force in 1947, Article XX has never been successfully used to defend culture. What is most troubling is that WTO agreements contain no effective solution to the problem of public goods in commercial trade. Furthermore, countries attempting to protect culture will be punished in litigation. 47. PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP, ‘Global Media and Entertainment Outlook’. 48. Drache et al., ‘Global Cultural Flows’. 49. Scott Morrison, ‘Triple Play Shows the Way’, Financial Times, 20 July 2004. 50. Ibid. 51. PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP, ‘Global Media and Entertainment Outlook’. 52. Morrison, ‘Triple Play Shows the Way’. 53. Lessig, Free Culture. 54. Jeremy Rifkin, ‘Worlds Apart on the Vision Thing’, The Globe and Mail, 17 August 2004, p. A15. 55. ‘The Emergence of Collective Preferences in International Trade (Internal Memorandum)’, Brussels, European Union, 2003, www.trade-info.cec.eu.int/doclib/html/118929.htm. 56. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, ‘World Culture Report 2000: Cultural Diversity, Conflict and Pluralism’, Paris, 2000, www.unesco.org/culture/worldreport/. 57. Grant & Wood, Blockbusters and Trade Wars. 58. PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP, ‘Global Media and Entertainment Outlook’. 59. Drache, Borders Matter. 60. Geoffrey York, ‘Boom and Gloom: The Struggle for a Country's Soul’, The Globe and Mail, 23 October 2004. 61. UNESCO, World Culture Report 2000. 62. Emmanuel Todd, After the Empire: The Breakdown of the American Order (Columbia University Press, 2003). 63. Ibid., p. 25. 64. Ibid., p. 27. 65. David Held, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt & Jonathan Perraton, Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture (Stanford University Press, 1999). 66. Harold Adams Innis, The Bias of Communication (University of Toronto Press, 1951). 67. International Telecommunications Union, ‘ITU Strategy and Policy Unit News Update: Policy and Strategy Trends’, www.itu.int/osg/spu/spunews/2002/jul-sep/jul-septrends.html (accessed 15 October 2004). 68. Ibid. 69. Jim Yardley, ‘A Hundred Cellphones Bloom, and Chinese Take to the Streets’, New York Times, 25 April 2005. 70. Edward Luce, ‘India Rings up Huge Rise in Mobile Phone Use’, Financial Times, 10 November 2004. 71. Ibid. 72. Clyde Summers, ‘The Battle In Seattle: Free Trade, Labor Rights, and Societal Values’, University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Economic Law, Vol. 22, No. 1 (2001), pp. 61–90. 73. ITU, ‘ITU Strategy and Policy Unit News Update: Policy and Strategy Trends’. 74. Cell phone manufacturers have begun to cater to southern consumers, producing handsets for the Muslim world that point in the direction of Mecca and ring the user at prayer time. Mobile providers in India offer services for the Hindu on the go. For a nominal charge, the user can send a prayer over the wireless network, to the appropriate temple. Culture plays an important role in the evolution of technology in different regions. See Lara Srivastava, ‘Social and Human Considerations for a More Mobile World’, paper presented to the ITU/MIC Workshop on Shaping the Future Mobile Information Society, Seoul, 4–5 March 2004. 75. Arjun Appadurai, ‘Grassroots Globalization and the Research Imagination’, in Arjun Appadurai (ed.), Globalization (Duke University Press, 2001), pp. 1–20. 76. Ibid. 77. Manjunath Pendakur, Indian Popular Cinema: Industry, Ideology and Consciousness (Hampton Press, 2003). 78. Leela Jacinto, ‘Indian Film Industry Gives Hollywood a Run for Its Melodrama’, ABC News Internet Ventures, 30 September 2004, www.abc.go.com/international/print?id = 81141 (accessed 24 November 2004). 79. UK Film Council, ‘The Indian Media and Entertainment Industry’. 80. Jose Marques de Melo, ‘Development of the Audiovisual Industry in Brazil from Importer to Exporter of Television Programming’, Canadian Journal of Communication, Vol. 20, No. 3 (1995), pp. 317–28. 81. The entertainment industry in India outperforms the rest of the economy by a substantial margin. In 2001, the sector grew by 30 per cent. Government has hastened to capitalise on this growth. In 1997, it granted film production ‘industry’ status and the government has begun to promote foreign investment by removing trade barriers and introducing legislation to curb film piracy. 82. Jo Johnson, ‘Wal-Mart's India Hopes Boosted’, Financial Times, 30 May 2005. 83. Burt, ‘Quotas Fail to Save European Producers’. 84. ‘The Emergence of Collective Preferences in International Trade (Internal Memorandum)’. 85. Grant & Wood, Blockbusters and Trade Wars. 86. Joyce Zemans, ‘Advancing Cultural Diversity Globally: The Role of Civil Society Movements’, paper presented at the conference Global Flows, Dissent and Diversity: The New Agenda, Université du Quebec à Montréal, Montréal, 14–15 May 2004. Despite the model, the Liberals have recently cut $500 million CDN from the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's budget, dramatically weakening the national broadcaster. 87. Daniele Allard, ‘Taishu Bunka and Anne Clubs in Japan’, in Irene Gammel (ed.), Making Avonlea: L. M. Montgomery and Popular Culture (University of Toronto Press, 2002), pp. 295–309. 88. The International Network for Cultural Policy has been Canada's most critical contribution in this vein. It has become the policy portal for trade and cultural policy ministers across OECD and developing countries (see www.incp-ripc.org). Beside the INCP, cultural activists from the global north and south have created the International Network for Cultural Diversity (INCD) in order to build a popular, non-governmental constituency around many of the key issues being addressed by INCP ministers. There was a vacuum at the global level and these networks of activists and policy experts have begun to fill it, a striking example of an incipient global civil society movement that has concrete policy influence. 89. www.mediacarta.org. 90. Charles Taylor, ‘The Politics of Recognition’, in Amy Gutmann (ed.), Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition (Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 25–74; and Will Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights (Clarendon Press, 1995). 91. Samuel P. Huntington, ‘The Hispanic Challenge’, Foreign Policy, No. 141 (2004), pp. 30–46. 92. James K. Glassman, ‘Get Tough with “Axis of Patent Evil”’, American Enterprise Institute, 14 April 2005, http://www.aei.org/publications/pubID.22300,filter.all/pub_detail.asp (accessed 14 June 2005). 93. Garry Neil, ‘WTO's New Round of Trade Negotiations: Doha Development Agenda Threatens Cultural Diversity’, International Network for Cultural Diversity, 20 November 2001, www.incd.net/resources/papers.html (accessed 6 June 2005). 94. Michael J. Trebilcock & Robert Howse, The Regulation of International Trade (Routledge, 1999). 95. Stephen Lewis, Race against Time, CBC Massey Lectures Series (House of Anansi Press, 2005). 96. United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2004: Cultural Liberty in Today's Diverse World (New York, 2004).