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‘Whoever Saw a Country with Four Armies?’: The Battle of Bulawayo Revisited*

2007; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 33; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/03057070701475708

1465-3893

Luise White,

African history and culture studies

Abstract Between November 1980 and February 1981, fissures in the new state of Zimbabwe became obvious to all. The lines between guerrilla, former guerrilla, soldier and civilian had blurred, and each group became heavily armed. In February 1981 there was a mutiny in the newly constructed Zimbabwe National Army that many thought could lead to wholesale civil war. The mutiny was put down in what is called the Battle of Bulawayo. In that battle mutinous troops were defeated by soldiers from the 1st Rhodesian African Rifles, renamed but not reconstituted as the 11-Battalion. These soldiers went into battle against former ZIPRA (and a few former ZANLA) cadres wearing the shoulder flashes and berets of their old Rhodesian uniforms. This article uses the Battle of Bulawayo, and the deployment of uniforms therein, to assess the power and legitimacy of Zimbabwe in its early years. If the new state could not monopolise the use of force, how could it claim to rule legitimately? This article argues that it was not the weakness of the new state that allowed its former enemies to do battle in its defence. Instead, the new state was able to animate relationships within the army that authorised the successful use of force. At the same time, soldiers of the new state were able to articulate their new citizenship with old loyalties – through actions and dress – to quell the mutiny. Notes * An earlier version of this article was given on a panel on new perspectives on settler societies at the African Studies Association annual meeting in New Orleans, November 2004. I want to thank the participants for their comments and JoAnn McGregor and two anonymous readers for JSAS for their close readings and helpful suggestions. 1 S. Sassoon, Memoirs of an Infantry Officer (London, Faber and Faber, 1965 [1930]), p. 10. 2 D. Wylie, Dead Leaves: Two Years in the Rhodesian War (Pietermartizburg, University of Natal Press, 2002), p. 1. 3 See for example, Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace (CCJP) in Zimbabwe and Legal Resources Foundation (LRF), Breaking the Silence, Building True Peace. A Report on the Disturbances in Matabeleland and the Midlands 1980 to 1988 (Harare, CCJP & LRF, 1997), pp. 31–3; P. Stiff, Cry Zimbabwe: Independence – Twenty Years On (Alberton, South Africa, Galago), pp. 31–92; N. J. Kriger, Guerrilla Veterans in Post-War Zimbabwe: Symbolic and Violent Politics, 1980–1987 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2003). 4 'Nkomo Calls For an End to "Interference"', The Chronicle (Bulawayo), 21 February 1981, p. 1. When ZAPU was based in Zambia its army was bigger than that of Zambia, a point that did not seem to bother Nkomo. 5 Max Weber made this point several times, but see 'Politics as a Vocation', in D. Owen and T. B. Strong (eds), translated by R. Livingstone, The Vocation Lectures (Indianapolis, Hackett, 2004), pp. 33–4. 6 M. Foucault, 'Society Must Be Defended': Lectures at the College de France, 1975–1976, translated by D. Macey (New York, Picador, 2003), pp. 24–30; E. Worby, 'The End of Modernity in Zimbabwe? Passages from Development to Sovereignty', in A. Hammar, B. Raftopoulos and S. Jensen (eds), Zimbabwe's Unfinished Business: Rethinking Land, State and Nation in the Context of Crisis (Harare, Weaver Press, 2003), pp. 49–81; D.S. Moore, Suffering for Territory: Race, Place and Power in Zimbabwe (Durham, NC, Duke University Press, 2005), pp. 5–12; see also J. Keegan, The Mask of Command (Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1988), pp. 4–5. 7 'Zimbabwe Army Used as Main Means to Disband Guerrillas', The Times (London), 30 January 1981, p. 7; A. Nyathi with J. Hoffman, Tomorrow is Built Today: Experiences of War, Colonialism and the Struggle for Collective Co-Operatives in Zimbabwe (Harare, Anvil Press, 1990), p. 42; Kriger, Guerrilla Veterans, pp. 70–71, 109; J. Alexander, J. McGregor, and T. Ranger, Violence and Memory: One Hundred Years in the 'Dark Forests' of Matabeleland (Portsmouth, NH, Heinemann, 2000), pp. 184–5; Rhodesian Army Archives (hereafter RAA), British Empire and Commonwealth Museum, Bristol, 2001/086/101/159, Joint Operating Command Minutes (hereafter JOC Minutes), Salisbury, 7 & 10 March 1980. 8 RAA, 2001/086/007/082, JOC Minutes, 6 April 1978; 'Zimbabwe: Military Progress', Africa Confidential, 22, 13 (12 June 1981), pp. 4–5; 'Zimbabwe: Blessing in Disguise?', Africa Confidential, 22, 5 (25 February 1981), p. 2; Stiff, Cry Zimbabwe, p. 78; author's field-notes, Barton-on-Sea, England, 31 July 2003; Harare, 3 & 6 August 2006. 9 Kriger, Guerrilla Veterans, p. 105; Stiff, Cry Zimbabwe, p. 77. 10 'Mugabe Says No to "Tribal Army"', The Chronicle, 19 February 1981, p. 1. 11 Kriger, Guerrilla Veterans, pp. 110–14; A. Alao, 'The Metamorphosis of the "Unorthodox": The Integration and Development of the Zimbabwe National Army', in N. Bhebe and T. Ranger (eds), Soldiers in Zimbabwe's Liberation War, Volume 1, pp. 104–17 (Harare, University of Zimbabwe Press, 1995). 12 Nyathi, Tomorrow, pp. 42, 44; Kriger, Guerrilla Veterans, pp. 116–17; RAA 2001/086/101/159, Combined Operations HQ, Report on Assembly Points, 19 February 1980. 13 E.D. Mnangagwa, 'Post-Independence Zimbabwe', in C.S. Banana (ed.), Turmoil and Tenacity. Zimbabwe 1980–1990 (Harare, College Press, 1989), pp. 225–41, esp. p. 236; J. Nkomo, The Story of My Life (London, Methuen, 1984), p. 219; Stiff, Cry Zimbabwe, pp. 51–55; 'Ex-Guerrillas Fight 4-Hour Gun Battle in Bulawayo', The Herald (Salisbury), 10 November 1980, p. 1; 'Ceasefire Ends Battle of Entumbane', The Herald, 11 November 1980, p. 1; 'Police Deny Rumours of "Massacres"', The Herald, 13 November 1980, p. 1. 14 'PM Appeals to Nation for Peace', The Herald, 11 November 1980, p. 1; 'Call to Disarm ZIPRA', The Herald, 11 November 1981, p. 1; 'ZIPRA Not Disloyal—Nkomo', The Herald, 17 November 1980, p. 1. 15 'Zimbabwe: The PF Problem', Africa Confidential, 22, (1 January 1981), p. 3; J. Alexander, 'Dissident Perspectives on Zimbabwe's Post-Independence War', Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, 68, 2 (1988), pp. 153–4. 16 'Residents Return after Fleeing Seke', The Herald, 1 November 1980, p. 1; 'Chitungwiza Guerrillas "to be disarmed"', The Herald, 4 November 1980, p. 1; '"Disarm the Guerrillas" says Sithole', The Herald, 13 November 1980, p. 2; Alexander et al., Violence and Memory, p. 187. 17 'Civilians May Not Wear Uniforms', The Herald, 19 December 1980, p. 1; 'New-Look Outfit for Combined Battalions', The Herald, 19 December 1980, p. 17. 18 'Chitungwiza Guerrillas "to be Disarmed"', The Herald, 4 November 1980, p. 1; '"Disarm the Guerillas" says Sithole', The Herald, 13 November 1980, p. 2; 'ZIPRA Not Disloyal—Nkomo', The Herald, 17 November 1980, p. 1. 19 'Families in Fear Flee Seke after ZIPRA Leave', The Herald, 10 February 1981, p. 1. 20 'New Look Outfit for Combined Battalions', The Herald, 19 November 1980, p. 17. 21 Alexander, 'Dissident Perspectives', p. 154. 22 Nyathi, Tomorrow, p. 43; Stiff, Cry Zimbabwe, pp. 76–77; T. Barnes, 'The Heroes' Struggle: Life After the Liberation War for Four Ex-Combatants in Zimbabwe', in Bhebe and Ranger (eds), Soldiers in Zimbabwe's Liberation War, pp. 118–38; 'Tension as ZIPRA Men Move', The Chronicle, 6 February 1981, p. 1; 'Army, Police Move in to Seke Camp', The Chronicle, 7 February 1981, p. 1; 'One Dead, 20 Injured as Army Groups Battle', The Chronicle, 9 February 1981, p. 1; 'Army Camps Calm as Fighting Ends', The Chronicle, 10 February 1981, p. 1; 'Families in Fear Flee Seke After ZIPRA Men Leave', The Herald, 10 February 1981, p. 1; 'Army Faction Fighting Spreads', The Chronicle, 11 February 1981, p. 1; 'New Flare-ups – Dissidents Fight On', The Herald, 12 February 1981, p. 1; 'Connemara in Hands of Dissident Troops?', The Chronicle, 13 February 1981, p. 1. 23 Author's field-notes, Harare, 6 August 2006; John Dzimba argues that South Africa only saw an opportunity to infiltrate ZIPRA after the events of 1981. Even then, ZIPRA's close ties with the ANC made such overtures unwelcome. J. Dzimba, South Africa's Destabilisation of Zimbabwe, 1980–89 (London, Macmillan Press, 1989), pp. 58–61; see also Alexander, 'Dissident Perspectives', pp. 164–6. 24 J. Nkomo, My Life, pp. 220–22; 'Bulawayo Deadlock as Zipra Men Keep Guns', The Times, 16 February 1981, p. 1; Nyathi, Tomorrow, p. 45. 25 G. Bond, The Incredibles: The History of the Rhodesian Light Infantry (Salisbury, Sarum, 1977), p. 4; Z. Flood, 'Brothers-in-Arms? White and Black Soldiers in the Rhodesian Army' (BA thesis, Oxford University, 2005), pp. 9–11; Author's field-notes, Barton-on-Sea, 31 July 2003; Harare, 21 July 2004; Harare, 3 August 2006. 26 Nyathi, Tomorrow, pp. 45–6; J. Brickhill, 'Daring to Storm the Heavens: The Military Strategy of ZAPU, 1976 to 1979', in Bhebe and Ranger (eds), Soldiers in Zimbabwe's Liberation War, pp. 61–3. 27 'The Old RAR Shows its Mettle', Daily News, 11 February 1981, p. 2; 'New Shooting as Entumbane Erupts', The Chronicle, 12 February 1981, p. 1; 'Uneasy Calm After Fighting', 'ZIPRA Convoy Wiped Out', The Chronicle, 13 February 1981, p. l; 'Main Road Shut by Fighting', The Herald, 11 February 1981, p. 1; 'New Flare-Up – Dissidents Fight On', The Herald, 12 February 1981, p. 1; 'Uneasy Calm Established in Bulawayo' &, 'ZIPRA Convoy Halted in Fierce Battle', The Herald, 13 February 1981, pp. 1 & 3; Stiff, Cry Zimbabwe, pp. 78–90; author's field-notes, Barton-on-Sea, England, 31 July 2003; for Soviet tanks and artillery see J. Brickhill, 'Storm the Heavens', pp. 48–72, esp. pp. 62–65; for the importance of the mastery of sophisticated weapons to ZIPRA see J. Alexander and J. McGregor, 'War Stories: Guerrilla Narratives of Zimbabwe's Liberation War', History Workshop Journal, 57, 1 (2004), pp. 81–100. 28 The telegram is reproduced in Stiff, Cry Zimbabwe, p. 90. 29 Foucault, 'Society Must Be Defended', pp. 24–30. 30 Stiff, Cry Zimbabwe, pp. 86–87, but see also 'The Old RAR Shows its Mettle', Daily News (Salisbury)), 11 February 1981, p. 2; 'Stern Action Will be Taken on Army Fighting, PM Tells House', The Chronicle, 12 February 1981, p. 1; 'Forces to be Parted – Nkomo', The Chronicle, 14 February 1981 p. 1; 'PM Promises Firm Line on Army Unrest', The Herald, 12 February 1981, p. 1; 'Mugabe Wars: Dissidents Will be Hammered', The Herald, 13 February 1981, p. 1; 'Clash Between Rival Factions Tests Integration of Zimbabwe Army', The Times (London), 10 February 1981, p. 6; 'Tension in Bulawayo Will be a Crucial Test of Mr. Nkomo's Ability to Control ZIPRA', The Times, 14 February 1981, p. 4; 'White Army "Stonks Some Gooks" to Aid Mugabe's Shaky State', Sunday Times, 15 February 1981, p. 9 – 'stonks' is an Afrikaans term that means to hit or strike; 'Zimbabwe: Blessing in Disguise', Africa Confidential, 22, 5 (25 February 1981), pp. 1–3. 31 Author's field-notes, Barton-on-Sea, 31 July 2003; Harare, 20 July 2004, Harare, 3 August 2006. 32 'White Army "Stonks Some Gooks" to Aid Mugabe's Shaky State', Sunday Times, 15 February 1981, p. 9. 33 'The Old RAR Shows its Mettle', Daily News, 11 February 1981, p. 2; 'Tensions in Bulawayo Will be Crucial Test of Mr. Nkomo's Ability to Control Zipra', The Times, 14 February 1981, p. 4; author's field-notes, Barton-on-Sea, 31 July 2003. 34 P. Abbott and P. Botham, Modern African Wars (1): Rhodesia 1965–80 (Oxford, Osprey, 1986), pp. 14–15, 41; C. Cocks, Fireforce: One Man's War in the Rhodesian Light Infantry (Weltervreden Park, Covos Day Books, 1997 [1988]), pp. 136–7. A regional mythology had developed about RAR dress and their success as soldiers. A visiting SADF team noted that RAR wore long pants in operational areas, thus protecting their legs, whereas the brash all-white RLI wore shorts, and hence had some difficulties manoeuvring in the bush. (Author's field-notes, Harare, 3 August 2006). 35 Lt.-Col R.F. Reid-Daly, as told to P. Stiff, Selous Scouts: Top Secret War (Alberton, Galago, 1982), pp. 59, 130–31; Lt.-Col. R.F. Reid-Daly, Pamwe Chete: The Legend of the Selous Scouts (Weltervreden Park, South Africa, Covos-Day Books, 1999), pp. 49, 140; L. White, 'Precarious Conditions: A Note on Counter-Insurgency in Africa after 1945', Gender and History, 16, 3 (2004), pp. 1–23; RAA 2001/086/010/869, Supt. Isemonger, BSAP, HQ, Terrorist Tactics, 28 June 1977. Some said that ZANLA could only recognise each other by their Soviet bloc small arms and their Chinese-made web pouches, but given that security forces took both from the bodies of dead guerrillas, this webbing was no guarantee of political affiliation. See Modern African Wars: Rhodesia, pp. 45–6; on webbing, see Cocks, Fireforce, pp. 138–9; on missing captured weapons, see RAA 2001/086/094/235, Joint Planning Committee, Salisbury, Brief for OCC on the recovery of missing terrorist weapons, 28 April 1977, and Proposal to control captured weapons and equipment, 4 May 1977. For more historical comments on the Rhodesian Army's obsession with guerrilla dress, see L. White, 'Poisoned Food, Poisoned Uniforms, and Anthrax: Or, How Guerrillas Die in War', Osiris, 19 (2004), pp. 220–33. 36 RAA 2001/086/035/1341 and RAA 2001/086/008/1339, Contact Reports, Operation Repulse and Operation Thrasher, March 1979. See S. Chinodya, Harvest of Thorns (Oxford, Heinemann, 1989), pp. 108, 113 for the contrast of the ZANLA commander's camouflage and the recruits' shorts, jeans and track suits. 37 P. McAleese, No Mean Soldier: The Story of the Ultimate Professional Soldier in the SAS and Other Forces (London, Cassell, 2000 [1993]), p. 119; RAA 2001/086/221/142, Supt. Michael Isemonger, BSAP HQ, Salisbury, Terrorist Tactics, 28 June 1977. 38 P. Stiff, The Rain Goddess (Alberton, Galago, 1973), p. 182. 39 I. Smith, Come Break a Spear (Bulawayo, Black Eagle Press, 1980), pp. 231–2. 40 G. Doke, First Born (Cape Town, Book, 2000), pp. 132, 142–5. 41 'Police Advice "Ignored"', The Chronicle, 13 May 1981, p. 1; D. Lemon, Never Quite A Soldier: A Policeman's War 1971–1983 (Stroud, Albida Books, 2000), p. 290. 42 'Clashes "a Surprise" to Sgt. Major', The Chronicle, 6 May 1981, p. 7; 'Camp Fighting Caught RSM by Surprise', The Herald, 6 May 1981, p. 3. 43 If there's a starting point to this literature, it is Jean Comaroff's use of Levi-Strauss's concept of bricolage, the arrangement of dress and adornments by which ordinary people seek to deploy and control the symbols that dominate their environment, see J. Comaroff, Body of Power, Spirit of Resistance: The Culture and History of a South African People (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1985), p. 198. Such insights were honed by K.T. Hansen, Salaula: The World of Secondhand Clothing and Zambia (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2000). There are two important edited collections on clothing: H. Hendrickson (ed.), Clothing and Difference: Embodied Identities in Colonial and Post-Colonial Africa (Durham, NC, Duke University Press, 1996) and J. Allman (ed.), Fashioning Africa: Power and the Politics of Dress (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2004). 44 G. Mann, Native Sons: West African Veterans and France in the Twentieth Century (Durham, NC, Duke University Press, 2006), pp. 93–4; T. H. Parsons, The African Rank-and-File: Social Implications of Colonial Military Service in the King's African Rifles, 1902–1964 (Portsmouth, NH, Heinemann, 1999), pp. 117–19; E. Renne, 'From Khaki to Agbada: Dress and Political Transition in Nigeria', pp. 125–43, in Fashioning Africa. See also C. Burke, Camp All-American, Hanoi Jane, and the High-and-Tight: Gender, Folklore, and Changing Military Culture (Boston, Beacon Press, 2004), pp. 78–105. 45 B.S. Cohn, 'Cloth, Clothes, and Colonialism: India in the Nineteenth Century', in Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1996), pp. 106–61, esp. 121–7. 46 D. Klumpp and C. Kratz, 'Aesthetics, Expertise and Ethnicity: Okiek and Maasai Perspectives on Personal Ornament', in T. Spear and R. Waller (eds), Being Maasai: Ethnicity and Identity in East Africa (Athens, Ohio University Press, 1993), pp. 195–221.