Least of the laity: the minimum requirements for a medieval Christian
2006; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 32; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1016/j.jmedhist.2006.09.005
ISSN1873-1279
AutoresNorman Tanner, Sethina Watson,
Tópico(s)Medieval Literature and History
ResumoAbstract This article investigates the minimum level of religious observance expected of lay Christians by church authorities, and the degree to which legislation and procedures attempted to enforce these standards.Footnote1 Once baptized, a person entered the community of the faithful; and the medieval church was as much accountable for the health and salvation of the ignorant, the ambivalent, the disobedient or distracted as they were of the devout. From the twelfth century, theologians, clerical authorities and the laity turned with concerted enthusiasm to the question of lay observance, advancing high ideals for lay commitment and expanding opportunities for lay participation. Yet while acting to elucidate and advance these qualities, the church was nevertheless mindful of the number of Christians who might fail to reach even basic standards. The resulting balance of the ideal and the possible, and the degree to which it reached and was enforced upon the less-enthusiastic laity is explored here through expectations for knowledge, observance of sacraments, and participation in regular duties such as church attendance, tithe-paying and fasting. The result was a complex ideal of lay observance that was balanced by a tolerance of laxity and even failure, and a system which increasingly exhorted specific expectations but was hesitant to define contumacy or disobedience in many but the most obdurate or scandalous cases. 1 The questions behind this essay were first raised in a lecture by Norman Tanner to the Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies in Toronto in 1991. An early consideration, 'How compulsory was Christianity in the middle ages?', appeared translated into Japanese by Keiji Notani, in Journal of Cross-Cultural Studies, 11 (Kobe University, Japan, 1999), 53-101. Subsequent rewriting, revision and updating was undertaken by Sethina Watson. Keywords: LaityReligious beliefTheologyLegislationPastoral care Notes 1 The questions behind this essay were first raised in a lecture by Norman Tanner to the Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies in Toronto in 1991. An early consideration, 'How compulsory was Christianity in the middle ages?', appeared translated into Japanese by Keiji Notani, in Journal of Cross-Cultural Studies, 11 (Kobe University, Japan, 1999), 53-101. Subsequent rewriting, revision and updating was undertaken by Sethina Watson. 2 The literature is extensive. At different extremes between the common and the distinctive, see Eamon Duffy, The stripping of the altars: traditional religion in England, c.1400-c.1580 (2nd edition, London, 2005) and Caroline Walker Bynum, Holy feast and holy fast: the religious significance of food to medieval women (London, 1987). R.N. Swanson, Religion and devotion in Europe, c.1215-c.1515 (Cambridge, 1995) esp. 236, 238-47, provides a rich account with particular insight on 'demand-led' devotional practices; and for a more institutional view, Emma Mason, 'The role of the English parishioner, 1100-1500', Journal of Ecclesiastical History [JEH], 27 (1976), 17-29. The field of late medieval parochial devotion has witnessed particularly active debate, both historiographically and methodologically. For its most recent incarnation, and a wide-ranging bibliography, see Clive Burgess, ''Pre-reformation churchwardens' accounts and parish government: lessons from London and Bristol', English Historical Review [EHR], 117 (2002), 306-32; and responses by Beat Kümin, Ronald Hutton, and Burgess' rejoinder in EHR, 119 (2004), 87-99 and 100-16; and 120 (2005), 66-79. Also, Katherine L. French, The people of the parish: community life in a late medieval English diocese (Philadelphia, 2001). 3 John H. Van Engen, 'The Christian middle ages as an historiographical problem', American Historical Review, 99 (1986), 519-62, reprinted in his Religion in the history of the medieval west (Aldershot, 2004), I, provides a survey and bibliography to this question. For aspects of magic and paganism, see Bernard Hamilton, Religion in the medieval west (2nd edition, London, 2003), 150-6; Richard Kieckhefer, Magic in the middle ages (2nd edition, Cambridge, 2000); Valerie I. J. Flint, The rise of magic in early medieval Europe (Oxford, 1991); De heidense middeleeuwen, ed. Ludovicus Milis (Turnhout, 1992). For a recent discussion of the tensions and accommodation between paganism and Christianity, Judith Jesch, 'Scandinavians and 'cultural paganism' in late Anglo-Saxon England', in: The Christian tradition in Anglo-Saxon England: approaches to current scholarship and teaching, ed. P. Cavill (Cambridge, 2004), 55-68. Most recently, John Arnold, Belief and unbelief in medieval Europe (London, 2005). 4 Error iste non solum est insipientia, sed insania. William Peraldus, 'De fide', in his Summae virtutum ac vitiorum (Antwerp, 1588), 30r. 5 Decrees of the ecumenical councils, ed. Norman P. Tanner, 2 vols (London, 1990) [herein DEC], 233. See also M.V. Dougherty, 'Aquinas on the self-evidence of the articles of faith', Heythrop Journal, 46 (2005), 167-80. 6 DEC, 267. 7 Augustine of Hippo considered baptism necessary for salvation, others considered it highly desirable and probably necessary in all but a few cases. Thomas Aquinas held a relatively liberal view, arguing for the sufficiency of martyrdom and in some circumstances of an explicit desire for baptism; he nevertheless thought the rite of baptism generally necessary for salvation and urged the baptism of infants without delay. Enchiridion symbolorum: definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum, ed. Heinrich Denzinger and Adolf Schönmetzer (36th edition, Freiburg, 1976), nos 184, 219, 223, 231, 741, 794, 802, 904 and 1349; J. Bellamy, 'Baptême dans l'église latine depuis le viiie siécle avant et après le Concile de Trente', Dictionnaire de théologie catholique, 15 vols (Paris, 1903-50) [herein DTC], vol. 2:1, 250-96 (274-8); Peter R.L. Brown, Augustine of Hippo: a biography (London, 1967), 344 and 385; Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae (3.68,1-3 and 9, and 3.65,4), from the Blackfriars edition, 61 vols (London, 1963-81); Bernard of Clairvaux, On baptism and the duties of bishops, ed. Martha G. Newman and Emero Stiegman (Kalamazoo, 2004). For wider commentary, Baptism, the New Testament and the church: historical and contemporary studies in honour of R.E.O. White, ed. Stanley E. Porter and Anthony R. Cross (Sheffield, 1999); John D.C. Fisher, Christian initiation: baptism in the medieval west (London, 1965), 112-3; Francis A. Sullivan, Salvation outside the church? Tracing the history of the catholic response (London, 1992), 28-69. 8 Aquinas, Summa 2-2.10,1 and 8; 2-1.19,5. 9 Gratian, Decretum (D 4 de cons. C.76), in: Corpus iuris canonici, ed. Emil Friedberg, 2 vols (Leipzig, 1879-81), vol. 1, col. 1387; Augustine of Hippo's letter (98) to Bishop Boniface in: Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum (Prague, 1895), vol. 34, 531-2; John Duns Scotus, Quaestiones in iv libros sententiarum (3.25.1), in his Opera omnia, 26 vols (Paris, 1891-95; repr. Farnborough, 1969). 10 Gregory IX, Decretales (X 3.42.3), in: Corpus iuris canonici, vol. 2, col. 646; Innocent IV, Apparatus in v libros decretalium (ad X 3.42.3-4), ed. L.P. Rosello and M.B. de Ubaldis (Venice, 1578), 187v. 11 Gabriel Biel, Collectorium circa iv libros sententiarum (4.6.2.1, not. 2), in: ed. Wilfrid Werbeck and Udo Hofmann, 4 vols (Tübingen, 1973-84), vol. 4:1, 247-8. For context see John H. Van Engen, 'Faith as a concept of order in medieval Christendom', in: Belief in history: innovative approaches to European and American religion, ed. Thomas Kselman (London, 1991), 25-9; repr. in Engen's Religion in the history of the medieval west, VI. 12 Among others, Peter de Bruys in the early twelfth century, Cathars, some Waldensians, and some Lollards. Christian baptism: a fresh attempt to understand the rite in terms of scripture, history and theology, ed. A. Gilmore (London, 1959), 223-37; Bellamy 'Baptême', 281-2; Malcolm Lambert, Medieval heresy: popular movements from the Gregorian reform to the reformation (London, 1992), 24, 55, 57, 75 and 281; Anne Hudson, The premature reformation: Wycliffite texts and Lollard history (Oxford, 1988), 291-2. 13 Especially: T.M. Parker, 'The medieval origins of the idea of the church as a "societas perfecta"', Miscellanea historiae ecclesiasticae 1: congres de Stockholm, Août 1960 (Louvain, 1961), 23-31; Walter Ullmann, The growth of papal government in the middle ages (3rd edition, London, 1971), 276-89; Colin Morris, The papal monarchy: the western church from 1050 to 1250 (Oxford, 1989), 14-33; A. Black, 'The individual and society', in: The Cambridge history of medieval political thought, c.350 - c.1450, ed. J.H. Burns (Cambridge, 1988), 588-606 (595-6). 14 Peter Damian, 'Contra philargyriam et munerum cupiditatem' (c. 7), Patrologia Latina, vol. 145, 540. 15 Aquinas, Summa 2-2.11,3. 16 Sacrorum conciliorum nova et amplissima collectio, ed. J.D. Mansi et al., 53 vols (Florence et al., 1759-1927), vol. 10, 633; Decretum D. 45 c.5, and Decretales X 3.42.3. For crusade as 'this business of Jesus Christ', see DEC, vol. 1, 268 and 654. 17 For a wide-ranging treatment, see R.H. Helmholz, The spirit of classical canon law (London, 1996), 224-7 and 229-56. 18 For a study of the canonists' work and its juridical effects, R.H. Helmholz, The Oxford history of the laws of England, vol 1 (Oxford, 2004), 68-106. 19 The same basic requirements were outlined in the 'canons of Edgar' and the laws of Cnut of early eleventh-century England, which stated that 'he who will not learn it is not truly Christian'. Councils and synods, with other documents relating to the English church, vol. 1 (A.D. 871-1204), ed. D. Whitelock et al. (Oxford, 1981) and vol. 2 (A.D. 1205-1313), ed. F.M. Powicke and C.R. Cheney (Oxford, 1964) [herein CS], vol 1, 322 and 483; Joseph Lynch, Godparents and kinship in early medieval Europe (Princeton, 1986), 311-32. 20 The study of liturgy, ed. Cheslyn Jones et al. (2nd edition., London, 1992), 133-4 and 145-6; J.N.D. Kelly, Early Christian creeds, (3rd edition, London, 1972), 33-40, 49-52. 21 A fuller and more explicit knowledge was required of clergy. St Bonaventure, Commentarium in IV libros sententiarum (3.25.1.3) in his Opera omnia, 10 vols (Quaracchi, 1882-1902), vol. 3, 543-4; Innocent IV, Apparatus 'Firmiter credimus', lr-lv; Thomas Aquinas, Scriptum super libros sententiarum (3.25.2,1), 4 vols (Paris, 1933); John Andreas, Decretalium librum novella commentaria (ad X 1.1.1) (Venice, 1581), 7r. 22 This discussion largely follows that in Van Engen, 'Faith as a concept of order', 36-47. See also J.-C. Schmitt, Religione, folklore e società nell'occidente medievale (Bari, 1988), 74-7. 23 Peter Lombard, Sententiae (3.25.2), 2 vols (Grottaferrata, 1971-81), vol. 2, 155. 24 Hebrews 11.6, that 'whoever would draw near to God must believe that he exists and that he rewards those who seek him', was frequently cited in this context. Innocent IV, Apparatus 'Firmiter credimus', lr; Alberto Melloni, Innocenzo IV: la concezione e 1'esperienza della Cristianità come regimen unius personae (Genoa, 1990), 101. 25 Duns Scotus, Quaestiones 3.25.1; Bonaventure, Sententiarum 3.25.1.3. 26 Lollards of Coventry 1486-1522, ed. and trans. Shannon McSheffrey and Norman Tanner (Camden 5th ser., 23, 2004), 11-4; Heresy trials in the diocese of Norwich, 1428-31, ed. N.P. Tanner (Camden 4th series, 20, London, 1977), 26-7; Kent Heresy Proceedings 1511-12, ed. N.P. Tanner (Kent Records, 26 Maidstone, 1997), xiii and xviii. Those expressing suspicious beliefs could nonetheless come to the attention of the authorities, Walter L. Wakefield, 'Some unorthodox popular ideas of the thirteenth century', Medievalia et Humanistica, new ser. 4 (1973), 25-35. 27 Innocent IV, Apparatus 'Firmiter Credimus', 1v. 28 sed studere non est de necessitate salutis. Aquinas, Sententiarum 3.25.2,1, and Summa 2-2.2,6. 29 Lombard, Sententiae 3.25.2; Peter of Poitiers, Sententiarum libri quinque (3.21) in Patrologia Latina, vol. 211, 1093; Alexander of Hales, Summa theologica (3.2.2.1), ed. Bernardini Klumper, 4 vols (Quaracchi, 1924-48), vol. 4, 1120. 30 quod eorum professio ad hoc non est. William Lyndwood, Provinciale (Oxford, 1679), 1. 31 Jean Calvin, Institutio christianae religionis (3.2.2-3) (Geneva, 1559). 32 DEC, 107-655; Corpus iuris canonici. 33 Aquinas, Summa 2-2.2,6; Henry of Segusio (= Hostiensis), Lectura in quinque libros decretalium (proem), 6 vols (Venice, 1581), vol. 1, 5r; John Andreas, Novella Commentaria ad X 1.1.1. For Innocent IV's ecclesiology see Melloni, Innocenzo IV, passim. 34 Swanson, Religion and devotion, 60-1; Andrew D. Brown, Popular piety in late medieval England: the diocese of Salisbury, 1250-1550 (Oxford, 1995), 79. 35 CS, vol. 2, 172, 268, 304, 345, 403, 423, 516, 721, 900-5, 1017, 1062-9. 36 CS, vol. 2, 31, 265 and 1076; also, vol. 1, 1070-1; Joseph Goering and D.S. Taylor, 'The summulae of Bishops Walter de Cantrilupe (1240) and Peter Quinel (1287)', Speculum, 67 (1992), 576-94 (584). 37 Duffy, Stripping of the altars, 53; Lynch, Godparents, 318. 38 Confessionale (2.9), attributed to Bonaventure, in his Opera omnia, ed. A.-C. Peltier, 15 vols (Paris, 1864-71), vol. 8, 363-4; Thomas N. Tentler, Sin and confession on the eve of the reformation (Princeton, 1977), 84. 39 John Mirk's instructions for parish priests, ed. Gillis Kristensson (Lund, 1974), 92-103 and 108-63. As expectations became more elaborate in the later middle ages, so did anxieties over the role of the clergy, R.N. Swanson, 'Pastoralia in practice: the clergy and ministry in pre-reformation England', in: The pastor bonus: papers read at the British-Dutch colloquium at Utrecht, 18-21 September 2002, ed. Theo Clemens and Wim Janse (Leiden, 2004), 104-27. 40 The priest should ask if they knew the Creed, Lord's Prayer, Hail Mary, and how to make the sign of the cross. CS, vol. 2, 172 and 269. 41 CS, vol. 2, 115, 136, 214, 298 and 897. 42 Jean de Joinville, 'The life of Saint Louis', in Joinville and Villehardouin, Chronicles of the crusades, trans. Margaret R.B. Shaw (Harmondsworth, 1963), 172-3. 43 Alexander Murray, 'Piety and impiety in thirteenth-century Italy', in: Popular belief and practice, ed. G.J. Cuming and Derek Baker (Studies in Church History, Cambridge, 1984), 83-106. 44 Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Montaillou: cathars and catholics in a French village, 1294-1324 (London, 1978), esp. 306-26; J. Edwards, 'Religious faith and doubt in late medieval Spain: Soria circa 1450-1500', Past and Present [P&P], 120 (1988), 3-25 (13-8), and also 'Debate' by C.J. Somerville and 'Reply' by J. Edwards in P&P, 128 (1990), 152-61; Carlo Ginzburg, The cheese and the worms: the cosmos of a sixteenth-century miller (London, 1980), 10, 34-5, 52-65, 70-2, 75-7, 86-9. 45 Susan Reynolds, 'Social mentalities and the case of medieval scepticism', Transactions of the Royal Historical Society [TRHS], 6th series, 1 (1991), 21-41. And see Hamilton, Religion in the medieval west, 118-20; Arnold, Belief and unbelief, 216-30. 46 Bonaventure, Sententiarum 3.25.1.3. 47 Marriage and extreme unction had been authoritatively added to baptism, confirmation, penance or confession, the eucharist, and (not considered here) holy orders. For general discussion: Bernard Leeming, Principles of sacramental theology (London, 1956), 568-9; A. Michel, 'Sacrements' in DTC, 14:1, 485-644 (548-53). With the exception of marriage and holy orders, the practice of the sacraments has not received such close scholarly attention as their theology. Jacques Toussaert's work on Flanders remains, despite its limitations, the most thorough attempt to investigate the practice of all the sacraments in a given community. J. Toussaert, Le sentiment religieux en Flandre à la fin du moyen âge (Paris, 1960), 89-244, and reviews by J. Andriessen, in Ons Geestelijk Erf, 37 (1963), 423-31; S. Axters, in La Vie Spirituelle, Supplément, 16 (1963), 576; M. Dierickx, in Streven, 17 (1963-4), 48-56, and in Handelingen, 19 (1965), 319-38. The ways in which the church reached out to the laity (especially from the fourteenth century) through preaching, liturgy, architecture, image and drama have been considered by Miri Rubin, Corpus Christi: the Eucharist in late medieval culture (Cambridge, 1991), 213-87; Hamilton, Religion in the medieval west, 79-85 and, especially, Ann Eljenholm Nichols, Seeable signs: The iconography of the seven sacraments, 1350-1544 (Woodbridge, 1994), 129-84. See also, Study of liturgy, ed. Jones et al., 144-52, 264-85 and 369-79; Cyrille Vogel, Medieval liturgy: an introduction to the sources (2nd edition, Washington DC, 1986); L. Milis, 'De devotionele praktijk in de laat-middeleeuwse Nederlanden', in: Hoofsheid en devotie in de middeleeuwse maatschappij ed. J.D. Janssens (Brussels, 1982), 133-45. 48 Marion Gibbs and Jane Lang, Bishops and reform, 1215-1272 (Oxford, 1934, rpr. 1962), 94. 49 See, among others: Southern, Western society and the church, 18; Morris, Papal monarchy, 287 and 493-4; Francis Rapp, L'église et la vie religieuse en Occident à la fin du moyen âge (Nouvelle Clio, Paris, 1971), 143. Registers indicate a high level of baptism for the sixteenth century, E.A. Wrigley and Roger S. Schofield, The population history of England, 1541-1871 (London, 1981), 2, 4, 15 and 89-102. For a more detailed treatment of theologians and canon law on this topic, see Helmholz, Spirit of classical canon law, 200-28. 50 For example, Toussaert, Le sentiment religieux, 89-90; Le Roy Ladurie, Montaillou, 310-11; Sarah Foot, '"By water in the spirit": the administration of baptism in early Anglo-Saxon England' in: Pastoral care before the parish, ed. John Blair, and Richard Sharpe (Leicester, 1992), 171-92 (190-2); Peter J. Cramer, Baptism and change in the early middle ages, c.200-c.1150 (Cambridge, 1993), 130-78. 51 Capitularia regum francorum, ed. Alfred Boretius, 2 vols (Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Hannover, 1883), vol. 1, 69; Foot, 'By Water in the Spirit', 188 and 192. 52 Visitations in the diocese of Lincoln, 1517-1531, ed. A.H. Thompson, 3 vols (Lincoln Record Society, 33, 35 and 37, 1940-7), vol. 1, 18, 24, and vol. 3, 273, 275; 'Visitation returns of the diocese of Hereford in 1397', ed. A.T. Bannister, EHR, 44 (1929), 279-89, 444-53 (281-82, 284, 287, 452) and 45 (1930), 92-101, 444-63 (93, 98, 448). 53 Even a Muslim midwife could baptise a child, Hamilton, Religion in the medieval west, 88. William of Pagula directs that immersion in water and '"Ich cristen the in the name of the fader and the sone and the holi gost", or similar words in the vernacular using the local dialect' will baptise a child. He cautions against baptising the child twice 'as some foolish women do', in his 'Oculus sacerdotis', in: Pastors and the care of souls in medieval England, ed. John R. Shinners and William J. Dohar (Notre Dame, 1998), 138-51 (142). 54 For confirmation: Study of liturgy, ed. Jones et al., 84-5 and 111-6; Burkhard Neunheuser, Baptism and confirmation (London, 1964), 42-52, 181-98, 232-52; Lynch, Godparents, 210-3; Fisher, Christian initiation, 71-7, 80-2 and 94-5; E.M. Finnegan, 'The origins of confirmation in the western church', (Trier Theological Faculty thesis, Trier, 1970); G. Bareille, 'Confirmation d'après les pères Grecs et Latins', P. Bernard, 'Confirmation du VIIe au XIIe siècle', and 'Confirmation chez les scholastiques' in: DTC, vol. 3, 1026-77; Cramer, Baptism and change, 179-84. 55 Aquinas, Summa 3.72,1; Bonaventura, Sententiarum 4.7.3.2. 56 Joseph Avril, Le gouvernement des évêques et la vie religieuse dans le diocèse d'Angers (1148-1240), 2 vols (Lille, 1984), vol. 2, 691 and 700; CS, vol. 2, 32 and 71. 57 William of Pagula, 'Oculus sacerdotis', 143. 58 R.W. Southern, Robert Grosseteste: the growth of an English mind in medieval Europe (Oxford, 1986), 258. 59 CS, vol. 2, 897. 60 Sacrorum conciliorum nova, ed. Mansi, vol. 24, 349. 61 DEC, 245. 62 Alexander Murray, 'Confession before 1215', TRHS, 6th ser., 3 (1993), 51-81 (65). Sarah Hamilton, The practice of penance 900-1050 (Royal Historical Society, Woodbridge, 2001), 25-50 and esp. 55-6. 63 Hamilton, Practice of penance, 182-206; C.S. Watkins, 'Sin, penance and purgatory in the Anglo-Norman realm: the evidence of visions and ghost stories', P&P, 175 (2002), 3-33; David Crouch, 'The troubled deathbeds of Henry I's servants: death, confession, and secular conduct in the twelfth century', Albion, 34 (2002), 24-36. Noting earlier manuals for confessors, Leonard Boyle concurs that the canon was 'summing up a pastoral situation that had existed in many dioceses for years before the Fourth Lateran Council'. L.E. Boyle, 'The summa for confessors as a genre, and its religious intent', in: The pursuit of holiness in late medieval and renaissance religion, ed. Charles Trinkaus and Heiko A. Oberman (Leiden, 1974), 126-30 (128). 64 Scholars argue increasingly for a level of private confession before 1215 and the continuity of public penance post-1215, even challenging such distinction between the two, Hamilton, Practice of penance, 8-9; Mary C. Mansfield, The humiliation of sinners: public penance in thirteenth-century France (London, 1995). 65 Bernhard Poschmann, (rev. by F. Courtney), Penance and the anointing of the sick (London, 1964), 104-9 and 138-45; R. Rusconi, L'ordine dei peccati: la confessione tra medioevo ed età moderna (Bologna, 2002); Oscar D. Watkins, A history of penance, 2 vols (London, 1920), vol. 2, 750-71; Herbert Vorgrimler, Buße und krankensalbung (Handbuch der Dogmengeschichte, Freiburg, 1978), 70-131; John Mahoney, The making of moral theology: a study of the roman catholic tradition (Oxford, 1987), 2-17; E. Vacandard, 'Confession du Ier au XIIIe siècle', DTC, vol. 3, 838-94 (880-4); Murray, 'Confession', 63, 65 and 79. 66 Decretum D. 3 de pen. 1. 67 Cited in Murray, 'Confession', 64. 68 W.A. Pantin, The English church in the fourteenth century (Cambridge, 1955), 164-5. 69 P.J. Payer, 'Confession and the study of sex in the middle ages' in: Handbook of medieval sexuality, ed. V.L. Bullough and J.A. Brundage (London, 1996), 3-31 (13). 70 Henry C. Lea, A history of auricular confession and indulgences in the Latin church, 3 vols (Philadelphia, 1896), vol. 1, 23740, 30710, and vol. 2, 23743, 260, 271-9; P.-M. Gy, 'Le précepte de la confession annuelle et la nécessité de la confession', Revue des Sciences Philosophiques et Théologiques, 63 (1979), 529-47; Tentler, Sin and confession, 64, 69-70 and 134-61; P. Bernard, 'Confession (du concile de Latran au concile de Trente)', DTC, vol 3:1, 894-926 (902-16). 71 Lea, Auricular confession, vol. 1, 231-4; Tentler, Sin and confession, 70-82; Toussaert, Le sentiment religieux, 113-5; Le Roy Ladurie, Montaillou, 311-2; Norman P. Tanner, The church in late medieval Norwich, 1370-1532 (Toronto, 1984), 10; 'Visitation returns', vol. 44, 452, and vol. 45, 445 and 447-48; Visitations, vol. 1, 100, 122, 132 and 134, vol. 2, 32, and vol. 3, 277; Hudson, The premature Reformation, 152 and 294-9. 72 Confessionale 1.1. The Statutes of Paris (1196x1208) c.27-8 similarly direct parish priests to conduct confession in a place in the church that can be seen by all. Jean Longère, 'La pénitence d'après quelques statuts synodaux français du xiiie siècle' in: Horizons marins, itinéraires spirituels (ve–xviiie siècles), ed. H. Dubois et al., 2 vols (Histoire Ancienne et Médiévale, Sorbonne, 1987), vol. 1, 183-99 (184). Confessional boxes were uncommon before the second half of the sixteenth century, Tentler, Sin and confession, 82-3; Lea, Auricular confession, vol. 1, 394-5. 73 T.N. Tentler, 'The summa for confessors as an instrument of social control' in: Pursuit of holiness, ed. Trinkaus and Oberman, 103-26 (115). CS, vol. 2, 1070-1. 74 Confessors' manuals often recognised the limited control that confessors might have, both over the confession itself and the completion of the penance they prescribed. J. Hughes, 'The administration of confession in the diocese of York in the fourteenth century' in: Studies in clergy and ministry in medieval England, ed. David M. Smith (Borthwick Studies in History, York, 1991), 87-163 (114). Later manuals, from the fifteenth century, could advocate elaborate systems for prompting a full and detailed confession, John Mirk's Instructions for parish priests, 108-63. 75 Murray, 'Piety and impiety', 84. 76 A general outline as to how to solicit confession has been drawn from authors of penitential manuals who include William of Pagula, Richard Rolle, Archbishop John Thoresby, John Lacy, and John Burgo, see Hughes, 'Administration of confession', 111-2. 77 Toussaert, Le sentiment religieux, 109-10, 121 and 435-6. 78 Murray, 'Piety and impiety', 94. See also Lea, Auricular confession, vol. 1, 233-4. 79 For a particularly useful survey of the issues in the late medieval period, see L.G. Duggan, 'Fear and confession on the eve of the Reformation', Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte, 75 (1984), 153-75. 80 DEC, 245: Gregory Dix, The shape of the liturgy (2nd edition, Westminster, 1945), 597-8; E. Dublanchy, 'Communion fréquente,' in: DTC, vol. 3, 515-52 (521-8); Tanner, Church in late medieval Norwich, 10. For the development of eucharistic theology, Rubin, Corpus Christi, 14-35. 81 Visitations, vol. 1, 100, 113, 132 and 134-5; 'Visitation returns', vol. 44, 287, 451-2, and vol. 45, 96, 99, 446, 452, 458. 82 See, Barbara Harvey, 'Work and festa ferianda in medieval England', JEH 23 (1972), 289-308 (295); E. Dublanchy, 'Dimanche', and A. Villien, 'Fêtes', in: DTC, vol. 4, 1308-48 (1334-8), and vol. 5:2, 2183-91 (2183-7); R. Naz, 'Dimanche', in: Dictionnaire de Droit Canonique, ed. R. Naz, 7 vols (Paris, 1935-65) [herein DDC], vol. 4, 1227-31 (1228). The first injunction aimed to address late medieval enthusiasm for attending as many elevations of the Host (the moment immediately after transubstantiation was believed to occur) as possible. For this and the concern over other disrespectful behaviours, Rubin, Corpus Christi,150-55. On the proliferation of chapels Gervase Rosser, 'Parochial conformity and popular religion in late medieval England', TRHS, 6th ser., 1 (1991), 173-89 (174-6). 83 rari ecclesiam adeunt; rarissimi missam audiunt. Nicholas of Clamanges, De novis celebritatibus non instituendis, in his Opera omnia (Leyden, 1613), 143; Toussaert, Le sentiment religieux, 159; Murray, 'Piety and impiety', 92-3. 84 Tanner, Church in late medieval Norwich, 9 and 167-71. 85 The register of John Chandler, Dean of Salisbury 1404-17, ed. T.C.B. Timmins, Wilts. Rec. Soc. 39 (1984), xxii, 14 and 113. 86 Visitations, vol 1, xlvii, and vol. 3, 286; 'Visitation returns', vol. 44, 281, 287, 448, 452, and vol. 45, 92, 95, 445-47, 450-8, and 460. 87 Heresy trials in Norwich, 16 and 64. 88 Murray, 'Piety and impiety', 92-5; Helmholz, Laws of England, 384-6. 89 P. Hodgson, 'Ignorancia sacerdotum: a fifteenth-century discourse on the Lambeth constitutions,' Review of English Studies, 24 (1948), 1-11 (11). Also, R.N. Swanson, Church and society in late medieval England (Oxford, 1989), 252; Brown, Popular piety, 7. 90 William of Pagula, 'Oculus sacerdotis', 150; C.R. Cheney, From Becket to Langton: English church government, 1170-1213 (Manchester, 1956), 143-4. 91 P. De Lignerolles, 'Aspects de la pastorale paroissiale d'après les dispositions du concile de Lavaur de 1368', La paroisse en Languedoc (xiiie–xive s.)(Cahiers de Fanjeaux, Fanjeaux, 1990), 327-41 (333); Reynolds, 'Medieval scepticism', 37, following Paul Adam, La vie paroissiale en France au xive siècle (Paris, 1964), 246-76. 92 General studies include: C.N.L. Brooke, The medieval idea of marriage (Oxford, 1989); G. Duby, The knight, the lady and the priest: the making of modern marriage in medieval France (London, 1984); David D'Avray, Medieval marriage; symbolism and society (Oxford, 2005). For marriage and ecclesiastical law: M.M. Sheehan, 'Marriage theory and practice in the conciliar legislation and diocesan statutes of medieval England', Mediaeval Studies, 40 (1978), 408-60, repr. in: Marriage, family and law in medieval Europe: collected studies, ed. J.K. Farge (Cardiff, 1995), 118-76; R.M. Helmholz, Marriage litigation in medieval England (Cambridge, 1974); J.A. Brundage, Law, sex and Christian society in medieval Europe (Chicago, 1987), 176-546; Frederik Pedersen, Marriage disputes in medieval England (London, 2000); Helmholz, Laws of England, 521-40. 93 Helmholz, Laws of England, 7 and 46-7. For a level of influence, see C.M. Bouchard, 'Consanguinity and noble marriages in the tenth and eleventh centuries,' Speculum, 56:2 (1981), 268-87 (284). 94 Baptism and hearing confession could be performed by the laity if death was feared and no priest was available; the lay confessor could not, however, grant absolution. 95 William of Pagula, 'Oculus sacerdotis', 144; 'Visitation returns', vol. 45, 447. 96 M.M. Sheehan, 'Family and marriage, western Europe', in: Dictionary of the Middle Ages, ed. J.R. Strayer, 13 vols (New York, 1982-9) [herein DMA], vol. 4, 608-12 (608-10); G. Le Bras, 'La doctrine du mariage chez les théologiens et les canonistes depuis l'an mille', in: DTC, vol. 9:2, 2123-2317 (2182-2201); DEC, 258, and 755-6; Brundage, Law, sex and Christian society, 501-2 note 59. R.C. Palmer, 'Contexts of marriage in medieval England: evidence from the King's Court circa 1300', Speculum 59:1 (1984), 42-67 (42 and 52): Helmholz, Marriage litigation, 64-5. 97 Helmholz, Marriage litigation, 29 and 49. 98 DEC, 257-8 (italics ours). 99 Decretales ineditae saeculi XII. Walther Holtzman, Stanley Chodorow, and Charles Duggan (Monumenta Iuris Canonici, Vatican, 1982), 149. 100 Sheehan, 'Family and marriage', 610. 101 See, J.A. Brundage, 'Sex and ca
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