The Military and Europeanization Reforms in Turkey
2009; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 45; Issue: 5 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/00263200903135588
ISSN1743-7881
Autores Tópico(s)European Politics and Security
ResumoAbstract The Europeanization reforms in Turkey are partly designed to bring about the demilitarization of Turkish politics. However, up to now reforms have not been free from the military's impact. The democracy game is still played in a field whose borders have been delimited by the Turkish armed forces (TAF) and its interpretation of Kemalism. Even when the boundaries of these borders were extended, it was more due to the TAF's self-restraint, motivated by the prospect of membership in the EU, rather than the restrictive impact of institutional reforms. Under these circumstances, the future of Europeanization and thus the demilitarization of Turkish politics is likely to be shaped by whether reforms will reach the issues and prerogatives that the military has carefully guarded and whether the EU will offer the state a credible prospect for membership. Notes 1. For the experience of Southern European countries, see inter alia F. Agüero, Soldiers, Civilians, and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995); G.A. Kourvetaris, Studies on Modern Greek Society and Politics (Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1999); P.C. Manuel, The Challenges of Democratic Consolidation in Portugal: Political, Economic, and Military Issues, 1976–1991 (London: Praeger, 1996); and J.J. Linz and A.C. Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996). For changing civil–military relations in the Central and Eastern European countries during their accessions to NATO and the EU, see W. Jacoby, The Enlargement of the European Union and NATO: Ordering from the Menu in Central Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), and Z.D. Barany, 'Democratic Consolidation and the Military: The East European Experience', Comparative Politics, Vol.30 (1997), pp.21–44. 2. Europeanization reforms mainly refer to two constitutional and nine legislative packages adopted between 2001 and 2006. 3. European Parliament, Resolution on Turkey's Application for Membership of the European Union, Com (2002) 700 (20 May 2003); A.M. Oostlander, Report on the 2003 Regular Report of the Commission on Turkey's Progress Towards Accession, Com (2003) 676 (European Parliament, Committee on Foreign Affairs, Human Rights, Common Security and Defense Policy, 19 March 2004). 4. For a discussion of the TAF's political autonomy, see Ü. Cizre-Sakallıoğlu, 'The Anatomy of the Turkish Military's Political Autonomy', Comparative Politics, Vol.29 (1997), pp.151–66. 5. Article 111 of the 1961 Constitution. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Anayasası[Constitution of the Turkish Republic] (Ankara: T.C. Başbakanlık Neşriyat ve Müdevvenat Genel Müdürlüğü, 1961). 6. '1488 Sayılı Anayasa'da Değişiklik Yapılmasına Dair Kanun'[Law on Amendment of the Constitution No. 1488], Resmi Gazete[Official Gazette], No.13964 (22 Sept. 1971). 7. 'Council Decision of 8 March 2001 on the Principles, Priorities, Intermediate Objectives and Conditions Contained in the Accession Partnership with the Republic of Turkey', Official Journal of the European Union, 2001/235/EC (24 March 2001). 8. '4709 Sayılı Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Anayasasının Bazı Maddelerinin Değiştirilmesi Hakkında Kanun'[Law No.4709 on Amendment of Certain Articles of the Constitution], Resmi Gazete[Official Gazette], No.24556 (17 Oct. 2001). 9. 'Çeşitli Kanunlarda Değişiklik Yapılmasına İlişkin 4963 Sayılı Kanun'[Law No.4963 on Amendment of Certain Laws], Resmi Gazete (Official Gazette), No.25192 (7 Aug. 2003). 10. The Psychological Operations Department (Psikolojik Harekat Dairesi) was established under the Community Relations Presidency in 1983 upon the directive of then-CGS Nurettin Ersin. The major aim was to create a homogenous society loyal to Kemalist principles. The responsibility for conducting psychological operations among the public was transferred to the Ministry of Interior. The Ministry established Societal Relations branches in all cities. See for instance, Radikal, 23 Oct. 2003. 11. 'MGK Genel Sekreterliği Yönetmeliği'[Regulation on the NSC General Secretariat], Resmi Gazete[Official Gazette], No.25340 (8 Jan. 2004). 12. '5017 Sayılı Milli Güvenlik Kurulu ve Milli Güvenlik Kurulu Genel Sekreterliği Kanununun Bazı Hükümlerinin Yürürlükten Kaldırılmasına Dair Kanun'[Law No.5017 on the Abolition of Some of the Articles of the Law on the NSC and the General Secretariat of the NSC], Resmi Gazete[Official Gazette], No.25319 (17 Dec. 2003). 13. '4963 Sayılı Kanun'[Law No.4963]. 14. See for instance, Commission of the European Communities, 2000 Regular Report on Turkey's Progress towards Accession (Brussels, 8 Nov. 2000). 15. Military members frequently assert that the lack of parliamentary control is caused by civilians' lack of interest. They argue that politicians have the necessary legal tools to oversee but fail to utilize them. In order to illustrate politicians' lack of interest in the issue, one of my interviewees, who attended General Assembly sessions on the defence budget in the early 2000s, said the acting Speaker of the Parliament was reading a novel while the budget was being discussed. Civilians' lack of interest may stem from their lack of expertise in military matters. On the other hand, it may also be caused by the human need for self-protection through avoiding confrontation with the TAF. 16. For detailed information on budgeting and procurement, see A.N. Narlı, 'Aligning Civil–Military Relations in Turkey: Transparency Building in Defense Sector and the EU Reforms', in E.M. Felberbauer, P. Jureković and P. Pantev (eds.), Transforming National Armed Forces in South East Europe: From the Social to the Military Challenge (Vienna: National Defence Academy and Bureau for Security Policy, 2005), pp.157–86. 17. Interview with Ret. Brigadier General Cihangir Dumanlı, member of the HEC Supervision Board and former Head of the Defence, Planning and Resource Management Department at the General Staff on 29 June 2007. The lack of civilian personnel with expertise in security issues who can be employed or consulted by the executive or the legislative branches creates problems concerning not only parliamentary oversight of the military budget and expenditures but also the formulation of security and defence policies. This, in return, exacerbates the military officers' belief in the mediocrity and inadequacy of civilians. 18. '5018 Sayılı Kamu Mali Yönetimi ve Kontrol Kanunu'[Law No.5018 on Public Financial Management and Control], Resmi Gazete[Official Gazette], No.25326 (24 Dec. 2003). 19. '5170 Sayılı Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Anayasasının Bazı Maddelerinin Değiştirilmesi Hakkında Kanun'[Law No. 5170 on Amendment of Certain Articles of the Constitution], Resmi Gazete[Official Gazette], No.25469 (22 May 2004). 20. Taraf (İstanbul daily), 23 Aug. 2008. 21. '4963 Sayılı Kanun'[Law No.4963] and '5218 SayılıÖlüm Cezasının Kaldırılmasıİle Bazı Kanunlarda Değişiklik Yapılmasına İlişkin Kanun'[Law No.5218 on Abolishment of Death Penalty and Amendment of Certain Laws], Resmi Gazete[Official Gazette], No.25529 (21 July 2004). 22. '5530 Sayılı Askeri Mahkemeler Kuruluşu ve Yargılama Usulü Kanununda Değişiklik Yapılmasına Dair Kanun'[Law on the Amendment of Law the Establishment and Trial Procedures of Military Courts], Resmi Gazete[Official Gazette], No.26219 (5 July 2006). 23. The lower limit of the penalty was increased from two to six months by the new Penal Law adopted in 2005. Furthermore, in 2006 the crime was included as a terrorist crime under the condition that it is committed within the context of a terrorist organization's activities. It was provided that the penalty might be increased beyond the limits specified in the Penal Law. 'Terörle Mücadele Kanununda Değişiklik Yapılmasına Dair 5532 Sayılı Kanun'[Law No.5532 on the Amendment of the Law on Anti-Terrorism], Resmi Gazete[Official Gazette], No.26232 (18 July 2006). 24. The Protocol was concluded between the General Staff and the Ministry of Interior following the post-modern coup of February 1997. According to the protocol, under certain conditions the military is authorized to conduct military operations for internal security matters without a request from the civilian authorities. 25. The bulk of reforms were implemented between 2001 and 2003. In 2004, the defence confidentiality clause in the constitution was abrogated; and remaining military representatives were removed from civilian boards. In 2006, military courts' jurisdiction over civilians during peacetime was ended. 26. Some scholars foresaw the problem long before the Europeanization process started. See Cizre-Sakallıoğlu, 'The Anatomy'. 27. The number of the High Military Council members is 17, only two of them being civilians. 28. Radikal (İstanbul daily), 23 June 2000. 29. Hürriyet (İstanbul daily), 27 Dec. 2002. 30. Cizre-Sakallıoğlu, 'The Anatomy'. 31. Article 34 (later changed to Article 35) provides that 'The TAF's duty is to protect and defend the Turkish fatherland and the Turkish Republic as defined by the Constitution. (Silahlı Kuvvetlerin vazifesi, Türk yurdunu ve Anayasa ile tayin edilmiş olan Türkiye Cumhuriyetini kollamak ve korumaktır.)''211 Sayılı Türk Silahlı Kuvvetleri İç Hizmet Kanunu'[TAF Internal Service Law No. 211], Resmi Gazete[Official Gazette], No.10703 (10 Jan. 1961). Article 85 clarifies this duty by stipulating that the 'Turkish Armed Forces' duty is to defend the Turkish fatherland and the Republic against internal and external threats, if necessary by force. (Vazifesi, Türk Yurdu ve Cumhuriyetini içe ve dışa karşı lüzumunda silâhla korumak olan, Silâhlı Kuvvetler …)''Türk Silahlı Kuvvetleri İç Hizmet Yönetmeliği'[TAF Internal Service Regulation]', Resmi Gazete[Official Gazette], No.10899 (6 Sept. 1961). 32. The TAF considers itself guardian of the Republican or Atatürk's principles: republicanism, nationalism, populism, étatism, reformism, and secularism. Following the 1997 intervention, the National Security Policy Document identified both reactionary Islamism (irtica) and separatism as the number one internal threats to national security. Especially since then, secularism and nationalism, in the form of unitarism, predominate as far as the military's guardianship is concerned. 33. According to the article 'national security means to protect and defend constitutional order, national existence, unity, all interests including political, social, cultural, and economic aspects, and contractual rights in the international arena against all kinds of external and internal threats. (Milli Güvenlik devletin anayasal düzeninin, milli varlığının, bütünlüğünün, milletlerarası alanda siyasi, sosyal, kültürel ve ekonomik dahil bütün menfaatlerinin ve ahdi hukukunun her türlü dış ve iç tehditlere karşı korunması ve kollanmasını ifade eder.) '2945 Sayılı MGK ve MGK Genel Sekreterliği Kanunu'[Law No.2945 on NSC and the NSC General Secretariat], Resmi Gazete[Official Gazette], No.18218 (11 Nov. 1983). 34. For a detailed discussion on the formulation of the national security concept, see Ü. Cizre, 'Demythologyzing the National Security Concept: The Case of Turkey', The Middle East Journal, Vol.57 (2003), pp. 213–29. 35. Commission, 2000 Regular Report. 36. See, for instance, CGS Kıvrıkoğlu's remarks. Hürriyet, 12 May 2000. 37. Interview with Ret. Brigadier General Ali Esener on 29 June 2007. 38. Interview with Ret. General Tuncer Kılınç, former Secretary General of the NSC on 23 Aug. 2007. 39. Interview with Ret. General Ergin Celasin, former Air Forces Commander on 1 Aug. 2007. On this point, also see M. Heper, 'The European Union, the Turkish Military and Democracy', South European Society and Politics, Vol.10 (2005), p.38. 40. For CGS Kıvrıkoğlu's statements, see Sabah, 4 Sept. 1999. 41. Interview with Ret. General Necati Özgen, former Commander of the Third Army and President of the Association for Defense of National Rights on 24 July 2007. 42. S. Ergin, 'Interview with Vice Admiral Dervişoğlu', Hürriyet, 3 Nov. 1999. 43. See Deputy CGS Büyükanıt's remarks, Milliyet (İstanbul daily), 10 Oct. 2000. 44. The coalition government comprised by the Democratic Left Party (Demokratik Sol Parti– DLP), the Nationalist Movement Party (Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi– NMP), and Motherland Party (Anavatan Partisi– MP) was in charge from 1999 to 2002. 45. Radikal, 23 June 2000. 46. Hürriyet, 31 July 2000. 47. Amendment removed the fines stipulated for the offence of inciting the public to racial, ethnic and religious animosity but retained the imprisonment sentences. 'Bazı Kanunlarda Değişiklik Yapılmasına Dair 4744 Sayılı Kanun'[Law No.4744 on Amendment of Certain Laws], Resmi Gazete[Official Gazette], No.24676 (19 Feb. 2002). 48. Genelkurmay Başkanlığı 2000 Yılıİç Güvenlik Harekatı Değerlendirmesi [Internal Security Operation Assessment for Year 2000 by the General Staff], Hürriyet, 7 Dec. 2000. Özcan and Gün also show that demands such as broadcasts and education in Kurdish, abolition of the state of emergency, the death penalty, complaints about the DGMs, the system of village guards, and the crime of thought exist almost identically both in the Commission's 2001 Regular Report and the PKK's 7th and 8th Congress decisions. See N.A. Özcan and R. Gün, 'PKK'dan Kadek'e: Değişim mi Takiyye mi?'[From PKK to Kadek: Change or Takiyye], Stratejik Analiz[Strategic Analysis], Vol.25 (2002), p.16. 49. Milliyet, 13 Jan. 2001. 50. NTVMSNBC, 11 Jan. 2001. 51. Hürriyet, 12 Dec. 2000. 52. See 26 Şubat 2001 Tarihli MGK Toplantısı Basın Bildirisi [The NSC Meeting Communiqué dated 26 Feb. 2001], http://www.mgk.gov.tr/Turkce/Basinbildiri2001/26subat2001.htm. 53. 21 Ağustos 2001 Tarihli MGK Toplantısı Basın Bildirisi [The NSC Meeting Communiqué dated 21 Aug. 2001], http://www.mgk.gov.tr/Turkce/Basinbildiri2001/21agustos2001.htm. 54. '4709 Sayılı Kanun'[Law No.4709]. 55. Later, PM Ecevit would confirm that the leeadership did not convey any discontent about the abolishment of the death penalty. Hürriyet, 26 Feb. 2002. 56. Hürriyet, 13 May 2005. 57. Sabah (İstanbul daily), 8 Sept. 2001. 58. Milliyet, 25 July 2000. 59. See, for instance, Commission of the European Communities, 2002 Regular Report on Turkey's Progress towards Accession, Com (2002) 700 Final (Brussels, 9 Oct. 2002). 60. '4744 Sayılı Kanun'[Law No.4744]. 61. Ibid. 62. Genelkurmay Halkla İlişkiler Başkanı Albay Halil Kalkanlı' nın Ömer Tarkan'a gönderdiği açıklama [Letter to columnist Ömer Tarkan by Colonel Halil Kalkanlı, Head of Public Relations Department at the General Staff], Posta, 1 March 2001. 63. Hürriyet, 9 Jan. 2002. 64. Hürriyet, 11 March 2002. 65. 30 Mayıs 2002 Tarihli MGK Toplantısı Basın Bildirisi [The NSC Meeting Communiqué dated 30 May 2002], http://www.mgk.gov.tr/Turkce/Basinbildiri2002/30mayis2002.html. 66. 'Çeşitli Kanunlarda Değişiklik Yapılmasına İlişkin 4771 Sayılı Kanun'[Law No.4771 on Amendment of Certain Laws], Resmi Gazete[Official Gazette], No.24841 (9 Aug. 2002). 67. See for instance, E. Özkök, 'Devletin Beş Maddelik Kürtçe Kararı'[The State's Five Points Decision on Kurdish], Hürriyet, 13 March 2002. 68. See for instance, Hürriyet, 31 May 2002. 69. Genelkurmay Başkanlığı Genel Sekreterliği'nin TSK Hakkında Basında Yer Alan Haberler Hakkındaki 5 Haziran 2002 Tarihli Basın Açıklaması[Press Release by the General Secretariat of the General Staff Issued on 5 June 2002 Regarding the News on the TAF], http://www.abgs.gov.tr/index.php?p=22807&l=1. 70. In an insightful analysis, Jenkins argues that the Turkish military was not likely to let governmental policies go beyond acceptable parameters. G. Jenkins, Context and Circumstance: The Turkish Military and Politics (Oxford: Oxford University Press for the International Institute for Strategic Studies, 2001). 71. Commission, 2002 Regular Report. 72. Radikal, 27 Nov. 2002. 73. Radikal, 17 Jan. 2003. 74. Cumhuriyet (İstanbul daily), 9 Jan. 2003. 75. 'Çeşitli Kanunlarda Değişiklik Yapılmasına İlişkin 4928 Sayılı Kanun'[Law No.4928 on Amendment of Certain Laws], Resmi Gazete[Official Gazette], No.25173 (19 July 2003). 76. '4928 Sayılı Kanun'[Law No.4928]. 77. Yeni Şafak (İstanbul daily), 18 May 2003. 78. Milliyet, 20 May 2003. 79. M. Balbay, 'Genç Subaylar Tedirgin'[Young Officers are Uneasy], Cumhuriyet, 23 May 2003. 80. The high command objected to this specific article on the grounds that it was not related to the Copenhagen criteria and that it would hamper the state's control over places of worship. 81. Hürriyet, 30 May 2003. 82. Genelkurmay İkinci Başkanı Orgeneral Yaşar Büyükanıt'ın 'Küreselleşme ve Uluslararası Güvenlik' Sempozyumu Açış Konuşması (29 Mayıs 2003)'[Opening Speech Delivered by Deputy CGS Büyükanıt in Symposium on 'Globalization and International Security' on 29 May 2003], Hürriyet, 29 May 2003. 83. Interview with Ret. Lieutenant General Hasan Kundakçı, former Commander of Gendarmerie Security Regional Command in south-eastern Turkey on 2 July 2007. 84. 'Türk Vatandaşlarının Günlük Yaşamlarında Geleneksel Olarak Kullandıkları Farklı Dil ve Lehçelerde Yapılacak Radyo ve Televizyon Yayınları Hakkında Yönetmelik'[Regulation on Radio and Television Broadcasts in the Different Languages and Dialects used Traditionally by Turkish Citizens in their Daily Lives], Resmi Gazete[Official Gazette], No.25357 (25 Jan. 2004). 85. Zaman (İstanbul daily), 30 May 2003. 86. Yeni Şafak, 18 June 2003. 87. '4928 Sayılı Kanunun Genel Gerekçesi'[Legal Justification of Law No.4928], Resmi Gazete[Official Gazette], No.25173 (19 July 2003). 88. Commission of the European Communities, 2003 Regular Report on Turkey's Progress towards Accession, Com (2003) 676 Final (Brussels, 5 Nov. 2003). 89. 26 Haziran 2003 Tarihli MGK Toplantısı Basın Bildirisi [The NSC Meeting Communiqué dated 26 June 2003], http://www.mgk.gov.tr/Turkce/Basinbildiri2003/26haziran2003.html; 21 Kasım 2003 Tarihli MGK Toplantısı Basın Bildirisi [The NSC Meeting Communiqué dated 21 Nov. 2003], http://www.mgk.gov.tr/Turkce/Basinbildiri2003/21kasim2003.html. 90. '4963 Sayılı Kanun'[Law No.4963]. 91. Milliyet, 19 July 2003. 92. Hürriyet, 3 Aug. 2003. 93. '5227 Sayılı Kamu Yönetimi Temel Kanunu Tasarısı'[Draft Law No.5227 on Public Administration] (15 July 2004). 94. Interview with former Deputy Prime Minister Abdüllatif Şener on 19 Sept. 2007. 95. Interview with Ret. General Şener Eruygur, former Commander of the Gendarmerie on 24 July 2007. 96. See legal justification of President's Sezer veto dated 3 Aug. 2004, http://www.belgenet.com/2004/k5227_veto.html. 97. Radikal, 26 Aug. 2003. 98. Zaman, 27 May 2004. 99. 'Turchia, il sì dei Generali, Accettiamo le Regole della UE'[Turkey, Yes from the Generals, We Accept the Rules of the EU], La Repubblica, 27 Sept. 2004. 100. Commission of the European Communities, 2004 Regular Report on Turkey's Progress towards Accession, Sec (2004) 1201 (Brussels, 6 Oct. 2004). Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament: Recommendation of the European Commission on Turkey's Progress Towards Accession, Com(2004) 656 Final (Brussels, 6 Oct. 2004). 101. Genelkurmay İkinci Başkanı Orgeneral İlker Başbuğ Tarafından 2 Kasım 2004 Tarihinde İcra Edilen Basını Bilgilendirme Toplantısı[Press Conference Held by the Deputy CGS General İlker Başbuğ on 2 Nov. 2004], http://www.tsk.mil.tr/10_ARSIV/10_1_Basin_Yayin_Faaliyetleri/10_1_6_Toplantilar/kasim2004/ana.html. 102. Hürriyet, 11 Nov. 2004. 103. 27 Ekim 2004 Tarihli MGK Toplantısı Basın Bildirisi [The NSC Meeting Communiqué dated 27 Oct. 2004], http://www.mgk.gov.tr/Turkce/Basinbildiri2004/27ekim2004.html. After the EU's decision to suspend some chapters on the agenda of the accession negotiations, the NSC communiqué stated that the principle of equal footing was indispensable in order to continue the negotiations process. 28 Aralık 2006 Tarihli MGK Toplantısı Basın Bildirisi [The NSC Meeting Communiqué dated 28 Dec. 2006], http://www.mgk.gov.tr/Turkce/Basinbildiri2006/28aralik2006.htm. 104. Council of the European Union, Presidency Conclusions of the Brussels European Council (16/17 December 2004) 16238/1/04 REV 1 (Brussels, 1 Feb. 2005). 105. Interview with Ret. General Edip Başer, former Deputy CGS on 26 July 2007. 106. 30 Aralık 2004 Tarihli MGK Toplantısı Basın Bildirisi [The NSC Meeting Communiqué dated 30 Dec. 2004], http://www.mgk.gov.tr/Turkce/basinbildiri2004/30aralik2004.htm. 107. Statement by Deputy CGS Büyükanıt, Hürriyet, 26 March 2002. 108. H. Özkök (Chief of General Staff), 'ile Röportaj'[Interview with H. Özlök on Combating Terrorism, Cyprus and the EU], Birlik[Union], Vol.160 (2005), p.8. 109. Genelkurmay Başkanı Orgeneral Yaşar Büyükanıt'ın Harp Akademileri Komutanlığı' ndaki 16 Mart 2007 Tarihli Yıllık Değerlendirme Konuşması[Annual Speech Delivered by CGS Büyükanıt at the Turkish War Colleges Command on 16 March 2007], Radikal, 30 March 2007. 110. Genelkurmay Başkanı Orgeneral Yaşar Büyükanıt'ın Harp Akademileri 2006–2007 Eğitim ve Öğretim Yılı Açılış Konuşması (2 Ekim 2006) [Speech Delivered by CGS Büyükanıt on 2 Oct. 2006 on the Occasion of the New Academic Year at the Turkish War Colleges], http://www.tsk.mil.tr/10_ARSIV/10_1_Basin_Yayin_Faaliyetleri/10_1_7_Konusmalar/2006/harpakademilerikonusmasi_02102006.html. 111. Genelkurmay Başkanı Orgeneral Yaşar Büyükanıt Tarafından 12 Nisan 2007 Tarihinde İcra Edilen Basın Toplantısı[Press Conference Held by CGS Büyükanıt on 12 April 2007], http://www.ntvmsnbc.com/news/405466.asp 112. All of the private Kurdish courses were closed down by 2007 for various reasons. 113. Jenkins, Context and Circumstance. 114. According to the Transatlantic Trends public opinion survey, a project by German Marshall Fund of the United States, the Turkish people's support for EU membership was 73% in 2004, 63% in 2005, 54% in 2006, and 40% in 2007, http://www.transatlantictrends.org/trends/index.cfm?lang=eng. 115. See for instance, Commission of the European Communities, 2007 Regular Report on Turkey's Progress towards Accession, Com (2007) 663 Final (Brussels, 6 Nov. 2007). 116. Milliyet, 9 Dec. 2006. 117. U. Ergan, 'Heybeli Açılmasın'[Halki Should not be Opened], Hürriyet, 28 April 2005. 118. Ibid. 119. For CGS Özkök's statements see, Hürriyet, 27 Aug. and 20 Sept. 2005. Also see U. Ergan, 'Askerden MGK'ya Kimlik Raporu'[Report on Identity by the TAF to the NSC], Hürriyet, 29 Dec. 2005. 120. See '5532 Sayılı Kanun'[Law No.5532]. 121. These provinces are Siirt, Hakkari and Şırnak.
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