In the Shadow of the Qur'an: Recent Islamist Discourse on the United States and US Foreign Policy
2010; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 46; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/00263206.2010.492992
ISSN1743-7881
Autores Tópico(s)Globalization and Economic Impact
ResumoAbstract Academics have paid far more attention to Islamist movements than to the political discourse of contemporary Islamist authors. This is regrettable for four main reasons. First, Islamists address issues of major importance to their societies and these societies' relations with the external world, especially the West. Understanding their discourse holds the key to a better understanding of Islamist movements. Second, Islamists form an integral component of the Arab intelligentsia. As opinion shapers they influence the attitudes, beliefs and value systems of Arab publics. Third, Islamists have been writing extensively and critically about the United States, especially since the end of the Cold War. It is of great importance to understand why they are so ‘preoccupied’ with America and why they view it the way they do. Finally, Islamists write in a distinct style that leans heavily, and in complex ways, on the sacred text (the Qur'an). It is intriguing and intellectually stimulating to analyze the substance and style of their discourse and to contextualize it historically. This article focuses on one specific and critical aspect of contemporary Islamist discourse: its treatment of the United States. Notes 1. For one recent analysis of the problematic relationship between Arab intellectuals and the United States see S.E. Baroudi, ‘Arab Intellectuals and the Bush Administration Campaign for Democracy: The Case of the Greater Middle East Initiative’, Middle East Journal, Vol.61, No.3 (2007), pp.390–418. There is ample evidence of US unpopularity with Arab and Muslim publics, particularly since the US war on Iraq. According to the PEW ‘Global Attitudes Project’, ‘the US draws its most negative assessments from Muslim nations, with Jordan at just 21% favorable and Turkey and Pakistan at 23%’, http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?PageID&=801 (accessed 8 December 2008). Recent studies on negative popular attitudes about the United States in the Arab and Muslim worlds include: S. Faath (ed), Anti-Americanism in the Islamic World (Princeton, NJ: Markus Weiner Publishers, 2006). 2. For many years, Qaradawi had a weekly show on the pan-Arab television station al-Jazeera, and has an official website: http://www.qaradawi.net/site/topics/index.asp?cu_no=2&temp_type=44. 3. While the distinction between secular nationalists and Islamists is important, it should not be exaggerated. Both groups are equally critical of the United States. Furthermore, most secular authors view the Islamic religion and Islamic civilization as being at the core of the Arab world, and as such they subscribe to the notion of an American war on Islam that (in their view) is designed to dominate and subjugate the Arab people by undermining their attachment to both Arabism and Islam. This paper argues that what sets Islamists apart is not the substance of their discourse about the United States, but its style. 4. Baroudi has coined the term ‘rhetorical offensives' to capture this genre of polemical writing on the United States. See S.E. Baroudi, ‘Countering US Hegemony: The Discourse of Salim al-Hoss and other Arab Intellectuals', Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.44, No.1 (Jan. 2008), pp.105–29. 5. M.H. Haikal, Al-Zaman al-Amriki: min New York ila Kabul[The American Era from New York to Kabul] (Cairo: al-Misriyya lil-nashr wa al-tawzee’, 2002); M.H. Haikal, Al-Imbraturiyya al-Amrikiyya wa al-Ighara ‘ala al-‘Iraq[The American Empire and the War on Iraq] (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 2003). 6. Haikal, Al-Imbraturiyya al-Amrikiyya, p.23; Haikal, Al-Zaman al-Amriki, p.39. 7. Haikal, pp.249–60. 8. Ibid., pp.285–6. 9. A. Ezzeddine, ‘Asr Inhitat al-Impiryaliya: al-‘Awda ila Mantiq Mawazeen al-Qiwa al-‘Askariya[The Age of Decline of Imperialism: The Return to the Logic of Military Balances] (Cairo: Maktaba Madbouli, 2006), pp.11–12, 27, 44, 65. 10. S. Hafez, Karahia Taht al-Jild: Isra'il ‘Uqda al-‘Alaqat al-‘Arabiya al-Amrikiyya[Hatred that Goes Beneath the Skin: Israel the Irksome Issue in Arab–American Relations] (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 2003). The book was prefaced by Haikal. 11. Ibid. See, in particular, pp.27–33. 12. Ibid. See, in particular, pp.53–72. 13. Ibid. See, in particular, pp.16–18, 77. 14. Ibid. See, in particular, pp.18–23, 101, 104. 15. Ibid. See, in particular, pp.67–70. 16. O. Khaled, Al-Mustaqbal l-Arabi fi l-‘Asr al-Amriki[The Arab World's Future in the American Era] (Cairo: Markaz al-Qada lil-Tiba'a wa al-Nashr, 1992). 17. Ibid., pp.7–21, 65, 75, 111. 18. Ibid., pp.131–65. 19. See, in particular, G. Amin, ‘Awlama al-Qahr: al-Wilayat al-Mutahida wa al-‘Arab wa al-Muslimoun Qabl wa ba‘da Ahdath September 2001[The Globalization of Oppression: The United States and the Arabs and Muslims before and after the Events of September 2001] (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 2002), esp. pp.97–127; and G. Amin, ‘Asr al-Tashhir bi al-‘Arab wa al-Muslimin: Nahn wa al-‘Alam ba'ad 11 September 2001[The Era of Maligning Arabs and Muslims: Us and the World after 11 September 2001] (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 2004), esp. pp.5–42. 20. Ibid. 21. Since the late 1970s, Hoss has penned hundreds of editorials criticizing US foreign policy, which he compiled into no fewer than seven anthologies. See, inter alia, Nafidha ‘ala al-Mustaqbal[A Window to the Future] (Beirut: Dar al-'Ilm lil-Malayeen, 1981); ‘Kullahum Irhabiyoun wa-Akbarahum Akhtarahum’[They are All Terrorists: The Greatest among them is the Most Dangerous], included in Niqat ‘ala al-Huruf[Dotting the i's and Crossing the t's] (Beirut: Al-Markaz al-Islami lil-I'lam wa al-Inma’, 1987); ‘Usara al-‘Umr[Summary of Life] (Beirut: Sharika al-Matbu'at lil-Tawzee’ wa al-Nashr, 2004); Ta'alu ila Kalima Sawa’[Come to Concordance] (Beirut: Sharika al-Matbou'at lil-Tawzee’ wa al-Nashr, 2006). 22. See, inter alia, ‘Al-Irhab Wujha Nazhar’[Terrorism as a Point of View], Al-Safir, 9 April 2004, reprinted in Sawt bila Sada[A Voice Without Echo] (Beirut: Sharihaal-Matbu'at lil-Tawzih wa al-Nashr, 2005), pp.371–5; ‘Ay Salam?’[What Peace?], address made at the opening of the ‘axis for peace’ conference in Brussels, Belgium, 17 Nov. 2005, published in Ta'alu ila Kalima Sawa’, pp.161–7; ‘Difa'a ‘an al-‘Uruba’[In Defence of Arabism], Al-Hayat, 18 Jan. 2005, reprinted in Ta'alu ila Kalima Sawa’, pp.397–401. 23. ‘Hal al-Umma’[State of the Nation], public address made at the opening of the Arab National Conference, Beirut, 19 April 2004, published in Sawt bila Sada, pp.353–9. 24. S. Kila, ‘Ma Ba‘da al-Hadi ‘ashar min Auloul: ‘Asr al-Imbraturiyya al-Jadida’[After September 11: The Era of the New Empire] (Damascus: Dar al-Takwin lil-Nashar wa al-Tawzi’, 2003), p.11. 25. Ibid., p.12. 26. M.A. Hawat, Al-‘Arab wa Amrka min al-Sharq Awsatiya ila al-Sharq al-Awsat al-Kabir (The Arabs and America from the idea of a Middle East until the Greater Middle East [Initiative]), Cairo: Maktaba Madbouli, 2006, esp. pp.10-11. 27. A.S. Bishtawi, Tarikh al-Zhilm al-Amerki wa Bidaya al-Uful al-Imbraturi al-Madid[The History of American Oppression and the Beginning of the Irreversible Imperial Decline] (Beirut: al-Mu'asasa al-‘Arabiyya lil-Dirasat wa al-Nashr, 2007), pp.9–28, 150–57. 28. M.b.M. Safar, Al-Islam wa Amrika wa Ahdath September: Risala ila man Yahumuhu al-Amr[Islam, America and the September Attacks: A Message to Whom It May Concern] (Beirut: Dar al-Nafaes, 2004), pp.13–17, 130–33. 29. Ibid., pp.159–64. 30. Ibid., pp.141–7. 31. Ibid., pp.34–7, 124–47, 166–91. 32. M. Akash, Haq al-Tadhiya bi al-Akhar: Amerka wa al-Ibadat al-Jama'iyya[The Right to Sacrifice the Other: America and Genocides] (Beirut: Riad al-Rayyes Books, 2002). 33. Ibid. See, in particular, pp.11, 15–51. 34. K. ‘Awarkeh, Al-Suhuouniya al-Masihiya min al-Dakhil: Amrika wa al-Raqs ‘ala Iqa’ al-Khuarafa[An Inside Look at Christian Zionism: America and Dancing to the Tune of Myth] (Beirut: Sar al-Hadi, 2006). 35. S. Faqih, Man Yakkum Amrika: Al-Lobiyat al-Hakima wa Aliyat Sun’ al-Qarar[Who Governs America: Dominant Lobbies and the Mechanisms of Decision-making] (Beirut: Dar al-Qalam Lil-Tiba'a wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzi’, 2005). 36. R. Hilal, Al-Masih al-Yahoudi wa-Nihayat al-‘Alam: Al-Masihiya al-Siyasiya wa al-Usulilya fi Amrika[The Jewish Christ and the End of the World: Politicized and Fundamentalist Christianity in America] (Cairo: Maktaba al-Shuruq, 2001). 37. K. al-Jarad, Ab‘ad al-Istihdaf al-Amirki[The Dimensions of the American Targeting] (Damascus: Dar al-Fikr, 2004). 38. J. el-Khazen, Al-Muhafizoun al-Judud wa al-Masihiyoun-Al-Sahyounitoun[The Neoconservatives and the Christian-Zionists] (Beirut: Dar al-Saqi, 2005). 39. For a more detailed discussion of the works of these authors and others see Baroudi, ‘Countering US Hegemony’. 40. C. Mallat, Al-Dimuqratiyya fi Amerka[Democracy in America] (Beirut: Dar al-Nahar, 2001). 41. M. el-Shorbagi, Al-Dimuqratiyya al-Muqayyada: Intikhabat al-Ri'asa al-Amrikiyya[Bounded Democracy: Presidential Elections in the United States] (Cairo: Dar Misr al-Mahrussa, 2004). 42. M.M. Hashim, Amrika Balad al-Mutanaqidat[America: The Country of Contradiction] (Damascus: Dar al-Fikr, 2007). 43. Ibid., pp.337–446. 44. G. Salame, Amerika wa al-‘Alam: Ighra’ al-Quwa wa Madaha[America and the World: The Temptation of Power and its Limits] (Beirut: Dar al-Nahar, 2005), p.9. 45. Ibid., p.33. 46. Ibid., p.42. 47. Nevertheless, in the last few years (especially following the July–August 2006 war between Israel and Hezbollah), we have witnessed an upsurge in highly critical writings on the United States, by Lebanese Shiite Islamists. 48. M. Moro, Sira‘ al-Hadarat wa al-Harb al‘Alamiya al-Rabi‘a (Cairo: Dar al-Rawda, 2004). 49. M. Moro, Al-Sharq al-Awsat al-Jadid: al-Shu‘ub fi Muwajaha Amrika (Cairo: Maktaba Jazeera al-Ward, 2005). 50. See especially Moro, Sira‘ al-Hadarat, pp.5–9. 51. See especially ibid., pp.91–4, 227–35; and Moro, Al-Sharq al-Awsat al-Jadid, pp.3–4, 67–8, 101. 52. Moro, Sira‘ al-Hadarat, pp.5–9. 53. Ibid. See, in particular, pp.7, 36, 230. 54. Ibid. See, in particular, pp.37–8. 55. All translations of Qur’anic verses are from T. Khalidi, The Qur’an: A New Translation (London and New York: Penguin Classics, an imprint of Penguin Books, 2008). 56. Ibid., p.7. 57. Verse 26:227. 58. Verse 2:227. 59. Verse 7:34. 60. Verse 2:120. 61. Moro, Al-Sharq al-Awsat al-Jadid, pp.62, 101. 62. Verse 29:69. 63. Moro, Sira‘ al-Hadarat, p.207. 64. Verses 5:51–2. 65. Moro, Sira‘ al-Hadarat, p.147. 66. For example, he quotes verses 17:4–7. Ibid., p.159. 67. Qur’anic verses that portray Jews in a positive light include 44:31–3 and 5:20; there are even more verses that praise Christians, including verses 3:113 and 30:1–5. 68. Moro, Sira‘ al-Hadarat, p.221. 69. Ibid., p 232. 70. Ibid., pp.136, 187, 190; Moro, al-Sharq al-Awsat al-Jadid, pp.3, 67, 100. 71. Moro, Sira‘ al-Hadarat, p.130. 72. Ibid., p.77. 73. Ibid., p.114. 74. Ibid. 75. Ibid. 76. Ibid. Moro, however, stops short of calling Muslims God's chosen people. 77. M. ‘Abbas, Bal Hiya Harb ‘ala al-Islam[It is Indeed a War on Islam] (Cairo: Dar al-Qalam lil-Tina'a wa al-Nashr was al-Tawzi’, 2005). See especially pp.118–65. 78. Ibid., especially pp.119, 165, 174–5. 79. This main theme is repeated several times in the text. See, for example, pp.100, 119. 80. ‘Abbas, Bal Hiya Harb ‘ala al-Islam, pp.27, 71–4. 81. Verse 59:7. 82. ‘Abbas, Bal Hiya Harb ‘ala al-Islam, p.85. 83. Ibid., p.288. 84. Ibid., p.93. 85. Ibid. 86. These are four of God's 99 names mentioned in the Qur’an. 87. Verse 72:15: ‘But the transgressors shall be fire-wood for hell’. 88. Only God has knowledge of the unseen. Verse 11:123: ‘To God belongs the Unseen in the heavens and earth’. ‘Abbas is accusing Arab government and liberal Arab intellectuals of assigning attributes of the Divinity to the United States, which is tantamount to shirk or associating other gods with God. 89. The ‘us' here no doubt refers to Islamists. 90. ‘Abbas, Bal Hiya Harb ‘ala al-Islam, p.73. 91. Ibid., p.74. 92. Ibid., book cover and pp.103, 163, 216, 287. 93. Ibid., pp.92, 118, 119, 121, 169. 94. Ibid., pp.73, 108, 139. 95. Ibid., pp.31–71. 96. Verses 11:25–49. 97. Verses 11:49–95. 98. Only God holds total power. Verse 11:4: ‘To God is your return – and he holds power over all things.’ 99. ‘Abbas, Bal Hiya Harb ‘ala al-Islam, p.22. 100. See, in particular, verse 2:19: ‘Or else like a torrent from on high, with layers of darkness, thunder and lightning. They press their ears from the peal of thunder, fearing death. But God engulfs the unbelievers'; and verse 16:26: ‘The roof above them collapsed and the torment seized them from where they had not expected’. 101. Verses 7:103–41. 102. ‘Abbas, Bal Hiya Harb ‘ala al-Islam, p.26. 103. Pharaoh's oppression of the Israelites is a popular theme with contemporary Islamists who view the United States as a latter day Pharaoh. Basing herself on the Qur’an and the Hebrew Bible, Shiite author al-Mou'min provides a vivid account of the encounter between Moses and Pharaoh. In order to problematize the notion of a ‘Jewish people’, she attests that those who fled Egypt with Moses were a mixture of oppressed Egyptians and Israelites. M. al-Mou'min, Banu Isra'il wa al-Hadara al-Misriya[The Israelites and the Egyptian Civilization] (Beirut: Dar al-Hadi, 2007), esp. pp.193–230. 104. Verse 16:25: ‘So let them shoulder their burdens in full on the Day of Resurrection’. 105. Verse 89:26: ‘That Day none shall torment as He torments! None shall bind as He binds!’ 106. The idea here is that Muslims who preoccupy themselves with questions about when, where and under what circumstances to confront the United States are merely coming up with excuses not to do so. 107. ‘Abbas, Bal Hiya Harb ‘ala al-Islam, p.174. 108. Ibid., p.27. 109. Many Sunni Islamists – such as the renowned Egyptian writer Fehmi Houeidi – hold Qaradawi in great esteem. One secular writer, however, has vehemently attacked Qaradawi, questioning his claim to be a moderate figure. ‘Abd al-Razzaq ‘Eid, Yusuf al-Qaradawi Bayn al-Tasamuh wa al-Irhab [Yusuf Qaradawi between Tolerance and Terrorism] (Beirut: Dar al-Tali' a lil-Tiba'a wa al-Nashr, 2005). 110. Y. Qaradawi, Ummatna Bayn Qarnayn (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 2000). 111. Ibid., pp.22–39. 112. Ibid., pp.24–5. 113. Ibid., pp.231–5. Lebanese Shiite Islamist, ‘Ali Hassan Tah, draws the same distinction between the Universalism of Islam and the Western-led globalization, as can be seen from his book's title. A.H. Tah, Mujtama'na bayn ‘Alamiya al-Islam wa al-‘Awlama al-Gharbiya: Buhuth wa-Hulul[Our Society between the Universalism of Islam and Western-led Globalization: Researches and Solution] (Beirut: Dar, al-Hadi, 2007). 114. Ibid, p.232. 115. Ibid. 116. Ibid., p.234. 117. Ibid., pp.223–4. 118. Ibid., p.235. 119. Y. Qaradawi, Fi Fiqh al-Aqaliyat al-Muslima: Hayat al-Muslimin wasat al-Mujtama'at al-Akhra (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 2001). 120. Qaradawi's deep seated hostility to communist regimes and to communist ideology shows throughout his political writings. See, for example, Y. Qaradawi, Al-Hulul al-Mustawrada wa Kayf Janat ‘ala Umatna[Imported Solutions and How They Harmed Our Nation] (Beirut: Mu'asasa al-Risala, 1988), esp. pp.142–366. 121. Qaradawi, Ummatna Bayn Qarnayn, pp.37–8. 122. Y. Qaradawi, Al-Sahwa al-Islamiyya min al-Murahaqa ila al-Rushd (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 2002). 123. Ibid., p.115. 124. Ibid., pp.289–91. 125. Ibid., p.289. It is extremely unlikely that Qaradawi does not know that Japan surrendered after the attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki and not before them as he claims. 126. Ibid., p.133. 127. Ibid., pp.277–332. 128. Y. Qaradawi, Khitabuna al-Islami fi ‘asr al-‘Awlama (Cairo: Dar al-Shuruq, 2004), pp.12–13. 129. Ibid., p.13. 130. Ibid. 131. Y. Qaradawi, Nahnu wa al-Gharb. Since, I could not obtain a hard copy from any library or bookstore, I have relied on the electronic version as published on Qaradawi's official website: http://www.qaradawi.net. 132. Qaradawi, Nahnu wa al-Gharb: http://www.qaradawi.net/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2&item_no=4534&version=1&template_id=256&parent_id=1 (accessed 6 Dec. 2008). 133. Qaradawi, Nahnu wa al-Gharb: http://www.qaradawi.net/site/topics/static.asp?cu_no=2&item_no=4534&version=1&template_id=256&parent_id=1 (accessed 6 Dec. 2008). 134. Ibid. 135. Qaradawi, Fi Fiqh al-Aqaliyat al-Muslima, esp. pp.30–35. 136. Ibid., p.35. 137. Qaradawi, Ummatna Bayn Qarnayn, pp.148–51, 199–216. 138. Ibid., pp.172–5. 139. Qaradawi, Khitabuna al-Islami fi ‘asr al-‘Awlama, pp.164–5. 140. Ibid., pp.168–70. 141. Ibid., pp.158–62. 142. Qaradawi, Nahnu wa al-Gharb: http://www.qaradawi.net/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2&item_no=4568&version=1&template_id=256&parent_id=1. 143. Ibid. 144. Khitabuna al-Islami fi ‘asr al-‘Awlama, pp.44–6. 145. The paper's original plan was to provide equal treatment to the works of Lebanese Shiite authors. Doing that, however, would have added considerably to the paper's size without altering substantially its core theoretical argument. 146. J.H. ‘Atrissi, Uful Naghm al-Imbraturiya al-Amerkiya, Bayn al-Tawarut al-‘Alami wa al-Qiyada al-Munfarida: Bidaya Zhuhur al-Qutbiya al-Thuna'iya (Beirut: Dar al-Mahaja al-Baida’, 2005). A highly prolific (albeit not original) author, ‘Atrissi has written extensively on international relations, Israel, and the United States in the last few years. Other works by ‘Atrissi include: Amrakat al-Umam wa Sira‘ al-Hadarat[The Americanization of Nations and the Clash of Civilizations] (Beirut: Dar al-Hadi, 2002); Bayn al-Sharq wa al-Gharb: al-Islam huwa al-Hall[Between East and West: Islam is the Solution] (Beirut: Dar al-Hadi, 2007); Al-Hadara al-Muntahira: Qati‘at al-Insan lil-Sama’[Suicidal Civilization: Human Detachment from Heaven] (Beirut: Mu'assa al-Blagh lil-Tiba'a wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzi’, 2007). 147. ‘Atrissi, Uful Naghm al-Imbraturiya al-Amerkiya, pp.242–394. 148. J.H. ‘Atrissi, Hezbollah yaghur ‘arabah al-Tarikh (Beirut: Dar al-Safwa, 2007), p.7. ‘Atrissi revisits this theme in Iran al-Nawawiya wa al-Nizam al-Awsati al-Jadid[Nuclear Iran and the New Middle East System] (Beirut: Dar al-Hadi, 2006). 149. J.H. ‘Atrissi, Al-Harb ‘ala al-Islam: Al-Khusuma al-Tarikhiya bayn al-Gharb wa al-Sharq (Beirut: Mu'assa al-Blagh lil-Tiba'a wa al-Nashr wa al-Tawzi’, 2007). 150. M.A.B. al-‘Amili, Al-Islam wa al-Irhab wa al-Salam (Beirut: Dar al-Mahaja al-Baida’, 2006). 151. Ibid., p.338. 152. M.H. Fadlallah, Ida'at Islamiyah[Islamic Enlightenments] (Beirut: Dar al-Nahar lil-Nashr, 2003), pp.37–44. 153. Ibid., p.44. 154. Ibid., pp.80, 85–6, 110. 155. Ibid., pp.25–9, 47–52. 156. Ibid., pp.61–5. 157. Ibid., pp.47–55. 158. Qaradawi, Ummatna bayn Qarnayn, pp.90–95. 159. Qaradawi, Khitabuna al-Islami fi ‘asr al-‘Awlama, p.31. 160. Ibid., p.45. 161. As in the above quoted passage from Ummatna Bayn Qarnayn, p.225 where the United States is compared to Pharaoh; and in his reference in Nahnu wa al-Gharb to Israel as a ‘diabolic tree’ implanted by imperialism that is constantly plotting against Muslims: http://www.qaradawi.net/site/topics/static.asp?cu_no=2&lng=0&template_id=256&temp_type=42&parent_id=12. 162. K. Cragg, The Qur’an and the West (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2005), p.6. 163. To borrow the terminology of Ron Geaves, our authors are ‘orthodox Muslims' who go direct to the Qur’an and the Sunna in juxtaposition to ‘traditional Muslims' who acknowledge the body of work developed by early and medieval scholars. See R. Geaves, Aspects of Islam (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2005), p.6. 164. Works on anti-Americanism include: B. O'Connor and M. Griffiths (eds), The Rise of Anti-Americanism (London and New York: Routledge, 2006); P. Hollander (ed.), Understanding Anti-Americanism: Its Origins and Impact at Home and Abroad (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2004); and J.-F. Revel, Anti-Americanism (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003). 165. For a survey of Arab secular writers who subscribe to counter-hegemonic discourse see Baroudi, ‘Countering US Hegemony: The Discourse of Salim al-Hoss and other Arab Intellectuals'. For references to counter-hegemonic discourse, see, inter alia, L. Roniger and C.H. Waisman (eds.), Globality and Multiple Modernities: Comparative North American and Latin American Perspectives (Sussex: Sussex Academic Press, 2002). 166. See, inter alia, A. Bacevich, The Roots of American Militarism: How Americans are Seduced by War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005); J.B. Foster, Naked Imperialism: The US Pursuit of Global Dominance (New York, Monthly Review Press, 2006); C. Johnson, The Sorrows of Empire: Militarism, Secrecy and the End of the Republic (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2004); C. Johnson, Nemesis: The Last Days of the American Republic (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2006); see especially N. Chomsky, American Power and the New Mandarins, with New Foreword by Howard Zinn (New York: New York Press, 2002), and N. Chomsky, Middle East Illusions (Lanham, MD: Bowmann & Littlefield Pubishers, 2003). 167. See, in particular, J. Marti, Inside the Monster: Writings on the United States and American Imperialism (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975). 168. It is worth mentioning here that it was the US military presence in Saudi Arabia which set Osama bin Laden and the al-Qaeda movement on a collision course with the United States. 169. See, in particular, A. al-‘Al al-Baqouri, Wa'd Bush Wa'd Balfour al-Jadid: al-Hisad al-Murr lil-Sadatiya al-‘Arabiya[Bush's Declaration … the New Balfour Declaration: The Bitter Harvest of Sadat's Arab Policies] (Damascus: al-Dar al-Watniya al- Jadida, 2005). 170. While I could not resist the temptation to use the term ‘profane’, I do not wish to open the discussion of the appropriateness of Durkheimian notions of the sacred and the profane to Islamist discourse. For further discussion of the sacred–profane duality, see, inter alia, E. Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, trans. by C. Cosman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); M. Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion, trans. from the French by W.R. Trask (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1959).
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