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The transnational and national dimensions of pedagogical ideas: the case of the project method, 1918–1939

2009; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 45; Issue: 4-5 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/00309230903100957

1477-674X

María del Mar del Pozo Andrés,

Global Education and Multiculturalism

Abstract Dieser Artikel versucht, die verschiedenen und manchmal sogar widersprüchlichen Interpretationen zu analysieren, die den Ideen und Methoden der Reformpädagogik in verschiedenen sozialen und räumlichen Kontexten zugeschrieben wurden. Die Studie konzentriert sich speziell auf die Projektmethode, ein pädagogisches Konstrukt, das anscheinend gut definiert und allgemein bekannt war, und das ein bestimmtes Ausmaß an Einfluss in der Schulpraxis des 20. Jahrhunderts genoss. Zuerst werde ich eine Analyse des Ursprungs des Konzepts in den Vereinigten Staaten vornehmen, sowie seiner Aneignung von Pädagogen der University of Columbia und der darauffolgenden Debatte, die von dem undifferenzierten und missbräuchlichen Gebrauch des Begriffs ausgelöst wurde. Der zweite Teil der Studie untersucht die transnationale Präsenz dieser Methode und ihren Platz in der weltweiten Reformpädagogikbewegung. Dabei wird deutlich werden, wie die verschiedenen Interpretationen der Projektmethode klarer im Licht des weitergehenden Konflikts zwischen den paidozentrischen und den sozialisierenden Ansätzen innerhalb der pädagogischen Bewegung verstanden werden können. Zuletzt wird der Fall Spanien untersucht, wo die Methode in den 1930er Jahren sehr populär war, und das nicht nur aus pädagogischen Gründen; auf eine mehr oder weniger okkulte Art und Weise wurde sie mit einer demokratischen Schulform und der Sehnsucht nach einem Leben in einer Demokratie identifiziert. Keywords: ReformpädagogikProjektmethode Notes 1Akira Iriye, "Transnational History," Contemporary European History XIII, no. 2 (2004): 211. 2Brenda S.A. Yeoh, Karen P.Y. Lai, Michael W. Charney and Tong Chee Kiong, "Approaching Transnationalisms," in Approaching Transnationalisms. Studies on Transnational Societies, Multicultural Contacts, and Imaginings of Home, ed. Brenda S.A. Yeoh, Karen P.Y. Lai, Michael W. Charney and Tong Chee Kiong (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publisher, 2003), 1–2. 3Iriye, "Transnational History," 213. 4Sudeep Dasgupta, "Cultural Constellations, Critique and Modernity: An Introduction," in Sudeep Dasgupta, Constellations of the Transnational: Modernity, Culture, Critique (Amsterdam: Rodopí, 2007), 13. 5Michael P. Smith, Transnational Urbanism: Locating Globalization (Oxford: Blackwell, 2001), 3. 6Eckhardt Fuchs, "Networks and the History of Education," Paedagogica Historica XLIII, no. 2 (2007): 187. 7Sanjeev Khagra, James V. Riker and Kathryn Sikkink, eds, Restructuring World Politics. Transnational Social Movements, Networks and Norms (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002), 7. 8Christophe Charle, Jürgen Schriewer and Peter Wagner, eds, Transnational Intellectual Networks. Forms of Academic Knowledge and the Search for Cultural Identities (Frankfurt/Main: Campus Verlag, 2004), 13. 9Ibid., 13. 10Walter Barnes, "The New Education: An interpretation," Educational Review LXIV (1922), 124–34. 11Michael Knoll, "The Project Method: Its Vocational Education Origin and International Development," Journal of Industrial Teacher Education XXXIV, no. 3 (1997): 59–80. 12Cited in ibid., 65. 13Davir S. Snedden, Charles A. Prosser and Rufus W. Stimson, "The part‐time and project method necessary to an effective system of agricultural schools for Massachusetts," in Report of the Board of Education of Massachusetts on agricultural education (Boston: Weight and Potter, 1911), 41–61. Cited in Ulrich Schäfer, Internationale Bibliographie zur Projektmethode in der Erziehung 1895–1982 (Teil 1: Systematischer Katalog (Verlag für Wissenschaft und Bildung, 1988), 579. 14Stevenson was also professor at the Universities of Wisconsin and Illinois, primarily in the field of life insurance education. "A Memorial: John Alford Stevenson," Journal of the American Association of University Teachers of Insurance XVII, no. 1 (1950): 126–27. 15John Alford Stevenson, The Project Method of Teaching (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1922), 43 and 119. 16Ibid., 2. 17Ernest Horn, "Criteria for judging the Project Method," Educational Review LXIII (1922): 94. 18Patrick N. Foster, "Industrial Arts/Technology Education as a Social Study: The Original Intent?," Journal of Technology Education VI, no. 2 (1995): 4. 19William H. Kilpatrick, "The Project Method," Teachers College Record XIX (1918): 319–34, and at http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/4954 (cited March 6, 2007). 20Frederick Gordon Bonser, "The fundamental character of the Project Method," Progressive Education I, no. 2 (1924): 62. 21James F. Hosic and Sarah E. Chase, Brief Guide to the Project Method (New York: World book, 1924). 22David Levine, "The Project Method and the Stubborn Grammar of Schooling: A Milwaukee Story," Educational Foundations XV, no. 1 (2001): 5–24. 23 Educational Review LXIII (1922): 364. 24Joseph Watras, "Boyd Bode, Jerome Bruner, and engaging students' interests," Philosophical Studies in Education XXXIV (2003): 152. 25Alice M. Krackowizer, Projects in the Primary Grades (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1919), 8–10. 26Margaret Elizabeth Wells, A Project Curriculum. Dealing with the Project as a Means of organizing the Curriculum of the Elementary School (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1921). 27James F. Hosic, Sample Projects. First Series (New York, 1920). 28Ellsworth Collings, An Experiment with the Project Curriculum (New York: Macmillan, 1923). 29Michael Knoll, "Faking a dissertation: Ellsworth Collings, William H. Kilpatrick, and the 'Project Curriculum'," Journal of Curriculum Studies XXVIII (1996): 193–222. 30Bonser, "The fundamental character of the Project Method," 62. 31 Educational Review LXII (1921): 263. 32Gertrude Hartman, "The changing conception of the curriculum," Progressive Education I, no. 2 (1924): 61. 33Stuart Gratson Noble, "The progressive teacher's attitude toward new theory and practice," Educational Review LXV (1923): 292. 34William C. Ruediger, "Project Tangentials," Educational Review LXV (1923): 243–46. 35Horn, "Criteria for judging the Project Method," 95. 36Michael Knoll, "John Dewey und die Projektmethode: Zur Aufklärung eines Mißverständnisses," Bildung und Erziehung LXV (1992): 89–108. 37William H. Kilpatrick, "The Project Method in college courses in education," Educational Review LXIV (1922): 207–09. 38Boyd Henry Bode, "The project method," in Modern Educational Theories (New York: Macmillan, 1927), 141–67. 39John M. Heffron, "The Lincoln School of Teachers College: Elitism and educational democracy," in "Schools of Tomorrow," Schools of Today. What Happened to Progressive Education, Susan F. Semel and Alan R. Sadovnik, (New York: Peter Lang, 1999), 154. 40Katharine L. Keetor, "Making a play city," Progressive Education I, no. 2 (1924): 78. 41Herbert M. Kliebard, The Struggle for the American Curriculum. 1891–1958 (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986), 168. 42Edward Yeomans, "The Ojai Valley School," Progressive Education I, no. 2 (1924): 64. 43Lucia Burton Morse, "Living as education," Progressive Education I, no. 2 (1924): 68. 44Edwin C. Zavitz, "Projects in the Moraine Park School," Progressive Education I, no. 2 (1924): 88–91. 45Harry L. Tate, "An evaluation of the Project Method," Elementary School Journal XXXVII, no. 2 (1936): 131. 46Martin Lawn, "Borderless Education: Imagining a European Education Space in a Time of Brands and Networks," in Fabricating Europe: The Making of an Educational Space, António Nóvoa and Martin Lawn (Dordrecht: Klower, 2002), 20. Quoted in Joyce Goodman, "Working for Change Across International Borders: the Association of Headmistresses and Education for International Citizenship," Paedagogica Historica XLIII, no. 1 (2007): 167–68. 47Kevin J. Brehony, "A New Education for a New Era: The Contribution of the Conferences of the New Education Fellowship to the Disciplinary Field of Education 1921–1938," Paedagogica Historica XL, nos 5 and 6 (2004): 737. 48Unless there was a reference in the first 10 issues, which I was not able to consult. 49"The outlook tower," The New Era VII, no. 27 (1926): 91–93. 50Mary C. Davis, "Projects in Greek Life," The New Era in Home and School (1930): 77–79; Robert H. Lane, "Progressive Education in a Large City System," ibid., 80–82; Nell Curtis, "Jungle Beasts – A Project for Eight‐Year‐Olds," ibid., 85–86; Harriet B. Walker, "A Bible Project in a Secondary School," ibid., 87–88; Marion L. Ballow, "Projects in World Literature," ibid., 89; Hazel M. Barker, "The Romance of Exploration – A School Project," The New Era in Home and School XIV, no. 2 (1933): 52–56. 51N.S. Snodgrass, "Three Years of the Dalton Plan in a Scottish School," The New Era VII, no. 28 (1926): 169. 52Elizabeth Ingram, "A Spring Project," The New Era in Home and School (1930): 83–84; E.D. Davies, "A Project in a Rural School," ibid. (1931): 27–30; H.R.F. Gull, "First Steps to Freedom. Dairy Project," ibid. XIII, no. 5 (1932): 159; K. Daniell, "Build and Learn! An Account of an Experiment Carried Out in a Liverpool School' ibid. XIV, no. 9 (1933) and XIV, no. 10 (1933): 245–48. 53"Dr. C. W. Kimmins and the choice of a 'Prep' School," The New Era in Home and School (1930): 103. 54"Notre Ligue," Pour l'Ère Nouvelle VI (1923): 23. 55"L'École Internationale," Pour l'Ére Nouvelle, XIV (1925): 21. 56"L'École Internationale," Pour l'Ére Nouvelle, XV (1925): 27. 57Jean Vidal, "La Doctrine de la 'Nouvelle Éducation'," Revue Pédagogique (1923): 110–21. 58Adolphe Ferrière, "Un nuevo método de enseñanza y una nuevo escuela," Revista de Pedagogía XXXIX (1925): 97–98. 59Pierre Bovet, "El 'project method' en los Estados Unidos según Collings," in La libertad del niño en la escuela activa, Adolphe Ferrière (Madrid: Franciso Beltrán, 1928), 265–82. The fact that Ferrière included this monograph in a book which had as its unifying thread children's freedom, aside from the analysis of Bovet's critique, in which he stressed the infant's interest as a criteria for choosing the contents of a curriculum, supports my affirmation regarding the classification and labelling as "individualisers" that the Swiss pedagogue made of the project method. 60Susan F. Semel, "The City and Country School: a progressive paradigm," in "Schools of Tomorrow," Schools of Today, 125. 61Ovide Decroly and Raymond Buyse, "Le Rêve entrevu. Une journée à 'Park School' (Buffalo, Etats‐Unis)," Pour l'Ère Nouvelle IV (1922) : 74 and J. Delgoffe and Dr. D, "Une École expérimentale à New‐York," Pour l'Ère Nouvelle VII (1923) : 50. These articles were included by Ferrière in a brief bibliography in French about the project method. 62Marc Depaepe, Frank Simon and Angelo Van Gorp, "The Canonization of Ovide Decroly as a 'Saint' of the New Education," History of Education Quarterly XLIII, no. 2 (2003): 224–49. 63S.W. Ivanoff, "Le système complexe de l'enseignement en Russie," Pour l'Ère Nouvelle LXI (1928): 177–79. 64"Une semaine d'éducation nouvelle à Paris," Pour l'Ère Nouvelle XXXVII (1928): 85 and "Echos de la Semaine de l'Institut J.J. Rousseau à Paris," Pour l'Ère Nouvelle XL (1928): 155–56. 65Marie Butts, "Los centros de interés, los 'proyectos' y la simplificación del empleo del tiempo," La Escuela Moderna XLI, no. 480 (1931): 390–96. 66"Voix de différents pays," Pour l'Ère Nouvelle XVII (1925): 39. 67"Freedom Through Method," The New Era VIII, no. 32 (1927): 153. 68"Les Méthodes nouvelles," Pour l'Ère Nouvelle XXXII (1927): 232. 69Lorenzo Luzuriaga, "La Pédagogie de l'Équipe," Pour l'Ère Nouvelle XXXI (1927): 193; "La pedagogía del equipo," Revista de Pedagogía LXIX (1927): 405 and "Spain," The New Era VIII, no. 32 (1927): 179. 70Adolphe Ferrière, "Chronique du Congrès," Pour l'Ère Nouvelle LI (1929): 223–24. 71Kevin J. Brehony, "A New Education for a New Era," 750. 72All of the information gathered from the monographic issue dedicated to the project method by the publication Progressive Education was a small paragraph of the article by Bonser about its basis in the psychological principle of repetition of satisfactory experiences. Pour l'Ère Nouvelle XIV (1925): 25. In other cases he was aligned with the individualising methods together with the Dalton plan. From Beatrice Ensor's article all that was included was her reference to the synthetic nature of the method and the principle that "l'enfant est le point de départ, le centre et le but," Pour l'Ère Nouvelle XXII (1926): 139. 73Julius Gebhard, "The Project Method in the Infant's School," The New Era in Home and School XVI, no. 4 (1935): 102–05. 74Tom De Coster, Marc Depaepe, Frank Simon and Angelo Van Gorp, "Dewey in Belgium: A Libation for Modernity? Some intellectual plays about his presence and possible influence, and the ways in which such research can be shaped," in Inventing the Modern Self and John Dewey: Modernities and the Travelling of Pragmatism in Education, ed. Thomas S. Popkewitz (New York: Palgrave, 2005), 85–109. 75This could possibly be the weak point of my model of the reception in Spain of ideas from the New Education, which contemplates four stages, from the original author to the appropriation of the method by the schoolteachers. Ma del Mar del Pozo Andrés, "La renovación pedagógica en España (1900–1939): Etapas, características y movimientos," in Vo Encontro Ibérico de História da Educação, ed. Ernesto C. Martins (Castelo Branco: Alma Azol, 2005), 121–23. 76The pedagogical magazines studied were the following: Boletín de la Institución Libre de Enseñanza (1915–1936); Revista de Pedagogía (1922–1938); La Escuela Moderna (1915–1934); Revista de Escuelas Normales (1923–1936); El Magisterio Español (1915–1936); El Magisterio Nacional (1929–1936); Avante (1929–1936); Escuelas de España (1929–1936), Bulletí dels Mestres (1933–1938) and Cultura Española (1930–1934). 77David Tyack and Larry Cuban, Tinkering toward Utopia: A Century of Public School Reform (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995). 78Archive of the Junta para Ampliación de Estudios (JAE); 103/797 and Juana Moreno de Sosa, El "project method" (Madrid, 1922); Archive JAE, M‐122. 79John Adams, "The Project Method," in Modern Developments in Educational Practice (London: University of London, 1922), 227–48. 80Ángel R. Mata, "Un nuevo método de enseñanza: el project method," Revista de Pedagogía XVIII (1923): 206–11. 81Alfredo M. Aguayo, "El método de proyectos," Boletín de la Institución Libre de Enseñanza 777 (1924): 353–60. 82Ma del Mar del Pozo Andrés, "La Escuela Nueva en España: Crónica y semblanza de un mito." Historia de la Educación XXII–XXIII (2003–2004): 344–45. 83Gerardo Rodríguez, "Dos aspectos de nuestra renovación pedagógica," La Escuela Moderna XXXIII, no. 382 (1923): 481–87. 84Margaret Elizabeth Wells, Un programa escolar desarrollado en proyectos (Madrid: Publications of the Revista de Pedagogía, 1929). 85 Método de proyectos (Madrid: La Lectura, 1925). 86 Escuelas de España III, no. 2 (1931): 118. 87"Un ejemplo de escuela activa," Revista de Pedagogía XL (1925): 178–79; XLII (1925): 269–71 and Lorenzo Luzuriaga, Escuelas activas (Madrid: J. Cosano, 1925), 49–63. 88For example, the periodical La Escuela Moderna published an article by Marion G. Clark as well as one by J.F. Hosic and Sara E. Chase. In both cases, reference was made to the original North American source – the Journal of Educational Methods and Brief Guide to the Project Method, respectively – but not to the actual source of the translation. The linguistic style used in the Spanish version gives me reason to believe that the translator was Latin American, and it is entirely possible that the publication containing the material was of the same origin. In the Boletín de la Institución Libre de Enseñanza an article was published – furnishing neither an author nor a source – which was clearly not Spanish, given that the institutions mentioned were unknown in Spanish school culture. Marion G. Clark, "Dirección práctica de la enseñanza por proyectos," La Escuela Moderna XXXV, no. 400 (1925): 7–19; J.F. Hosic and Sara E. Chase, "Notas de Pedagogía práctica. Sección práctica. La frutería (Proyecto para el segundo grado)," La Escuela Moderna XXXVI, no. 418 (1926): 498–501 and "La escuela y la sociedad en el método de proyectos," Boletín de la Institución Libre de Enseñanza 806 (1927): 138–43. 89"La escuela y la sociedad en el método de proyectos" and "Sobre el 'método de proyectos'." Revista de Pedagogía LXIV (1927): 199. 90Marie Butts, "Los centros de interés, los 'proyectos' y la simplificación del empleo del tiempo," 390–96. Also published in Boletín de la Institución Libre de Enseñanza 848 (1930): 353–57 and in Cultura Española, 91 (1933): 9–11. This last article states that the information came from the magazine Enciclopedia de Educación de Montevideo. 91"El trabajo por grupos," Revista de Pedagogía LVI (1926): 366. 92Fernando Sáinz, El método de proyectos (Madrid: Publications of the Revista de Pedagogía, 1928), 66. 93Margarita Comas, "El método de proyectos en las escuelas urbanas," Revista de Pedagogía CX (1931): 63. 94Fernando Sáinz, "Un medio de vitalizar la escuela rural," Revista de Pedagogía LXXXV (1929): 9–15 and Fernando Sáinz, El método de proyectos en las escuelas rurales (Madrid: Publications of the Revista de Pedagogía), 7–8. 95Margarita Comas, El método de proyectos en las escuelas urbanas Revista de Pedagogía, CX (1931). 96Fernando Sáinz, Las escuelas nuevas norteamericanas (Madrid: Publications of the Revista de Pedagogía, 1928), 21. 97Pavía Navarro and Vicente Mengod Andrés, Desde la Escuela. El hacer escolar en la práctica (Valencia, n.d. [1934?]), 163–64. 98Severiano Resa Pascual, El Método de Proyectos en una Escuela española (Gerona, Pla, 1935), 32. 99Enrique Iglesias, "Tópicos y realidades. El Método de Proyectos y el respeto a la personalidad del niño," Avante LXXIX (1935): 18–21. 100Mariano López Fernández, La escuela activa y democrática (Barcelona: Imp. Elzeviriana, 1936), 157–58. 101David Bayón and Ángel Ledesma, El Método de Proyectos. Realizaciones (Madrid: Escuelas de España, 1934), 88–89. 102Sometimes the project was defined as "a well‐linked chain of centres of interest": Félix Martí Alpera, Ensayos del método de proyectos (Madrid: Publications of the Revista de Pedagogía, 1929), 10. 103David Bayón, "Métodos nuevos. Detractores y defensores," Escuelas de España VIII (1934): 37. 104"En el Seminario de Pedagogía, de Barcelona," La Escuela Moderna, XLII, no. 486 (1932): 104–07. 105"Assaigs del mètode de projectes," Bulletí dels Mestres CLII (1936): 187–88.