Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

Kicking Around International Sport: West Germany's Return to the International Community Through Football

2013; Routledge; Volume: 30; Issue: 17 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/09523367.2013.839550

1743-9035

Heather L. Dichter,

Sports, Gender, and Society

AbstractIn 1948, the American Military Government worked with Swiss soccer officials to organise Germany's first post-war international matches, three simultaneous German–Swiss intercity games. The American occupation authorities viewed these games as part of their broader efforts to help teach Germans about democracy, as a way for the international community to begin the process of reaccepting Germany and as a way to raise funds for charitable purposes tied to the reconstruction efforts. These games received tremendous popular support in Germany and Switzerland from football officials, the general public and the press. These German–Swiss games also facilitated Germany's return to the international community by forcing one of the most powerful international sport federations to address Germany's exclusion. Through a combination of materials from military governments, football federations and the press, this article examines how states used the internationalism of sport to obtain diplomatic aims. With these three intercity matches, football provided a venue for Germans to participate in relations with other countries while Germany itself remained excluded from the traditional international relations of diplomats.Keywords:: footballsoccerinternational relationsoccupationSwitzerland AcknowledgementsThe author would like to thank the George Marshall Foundation and the University of Toronto for funding research for this paper and the staffs of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association in Zurich and Schweizerischer Fussball Verband in Bern for graciously permitting use of their records. Special thanks as well to Helmut Walser Smith, Urs Obrist, Jan C. Rode, and the anonymous reviewers.Notes 1. Letter, Kurt Schaffner to Leon Shelnutt, August 12, 1948, National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), College Park, Maryland, Record Group (RG) 260 (Entry 1693) Office of Military Government, Wuerttemberg-Baden – Records of the Education & Cultural Relations Div – Youth Activities Section: Corresp & Related Recs, 1947–1949, Box 972; Group Activities Branch Bi-Monthly Report on Youth Activities, August 11, 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 610), Records of the Education and Cultural Relations Division – Records of the Community Education Branch – Records of Mr E.L. Norrie, Branch Chief, Box 123. 2. Group Activities Branch Bi-Monthly Report on Youth Activities, August 11, 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 610), Records of the Education and Cultural Relations Division – Records of the Community Education Branch – Records of Mr E.L. Norrie, Branch Chief, Box 123. 3.CitationSchmitz, Westdeutschland und die Schweiz, 190. 4.CitationBrändle and Koller, Goal! Kultur- und Sozialgeschichte, 205; CitationBrändle, “1945 bis 1954,” 102; CitationWahling, Ein Tur zur Welt? and CitationKoller, “Football negotiating,” 753. 5.CitationGechter, 60 Jahre Verein, 146 and CitationGrüne, Mit dem Ring, 60. 6. Uta Balbier briefly addresses Germany's return to the Olympic movement, but only as it related to the problems surrounding the all-German Olympic team of the 1950s and 1960s. CitationBorgers, Buschmann, and Lennartz, eds. Olympischer Neubeginn; CitationLaude and Bausch, Der Sport-Führer; CitationBuss and Nitsch, Am Anfang; CitationPieper, Scherer, and Mevert, 50 Jahre Deutscher Sportbund; CitationJost-Hardt, Die Reorganisation der Leichtathletik and CitationBalbier, Kalter Krief. 7. Many scholars and popular publications advocated this viewpoint in the lead-up to the 2006 World Cup, hosted by Germany. The popular movie, Das Wunder von Bern (Citation2003), also contributed to this sentiment. Franz-Josef Brüggemeier, however, argues that the 1954 World Cup victory was, after a few days of celebration, quickly forgotten and Diethelm Blecking has recently addressed the construction and deconstruction of the myth of Bern. CitationTomlinson and Young, German Football, xiii–xiv; CitationBrüggemeier, Zurück auf dem Platz and CitationBlecking, “Das Wunder von Bern.” 8.CitationUeberhorst, Friedrich Ludwig Jahn; CitationKrüger, “Germany” and CitationKrüger, “Body Culture.” 9.CitationEisenberg, “Football in Germany,” 206–7. For a more detailed analysis, see CitationEisenberg, “English Sports.”10.CitationGuthrie-Shimizu, Transpacific Field of Dreams, 11–7; CitationEggers, Fußball and CitationPyta, “German Football,” 3.11. Eisenberg, “Football in Germany,” 205 and Eggers, Fußball, 64.12. Pyta, “German Football,” 6. Robert Edelman has noted the Soviet Union's similar frustration with the uncontrollable nature of the game of football. CitationEdelman, Spartak Moscow.13. Pyta, “German Football,” 5, 9, 10.14. Hungary and Austria were also excluded from the 1920 Olympics as well. CitationSenn, Power, Politics.15. Ibid., 80; CitationKeys, Globalizing Sport, 38 and CitationHomäng, “International Sports Organizations,” 455.16. FIFA Proces-Verbal de la Reunion du Comite Executif, November 10–12, 1945, Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), Zurich, Switzerland, Executive Committee Meeting Agenda Minutes, 1940–1946; Minutes of the XXVth Congress, July 25–26, 1946, FIFA, 25th to 27th Ordinary Congress, 1946–1952 Activity Report Minutes.17. FIFA Proces-Verbal de la Reunion du Comite Executif, November 10–12, 1945, FIFA, Executive Committee Meeting Agenda Minutes, 1940–1946.18.CitationDichter, “Strict Measures Must be Taken.”19.CitationTuch, Communicating with the World, 3.20.CitationThomson, Easily Led; CitationArndt, First Resort; CitationCull, Cold War; CitationOsgood and Etheridge, United States; CitationDizard, Inventing Public Diplomacy; CitationGienow-Hecht, Transmission Impossible and CitationHixson, Parting the Curtain.21. Guthrie-Shimzu, Transpacific Field of Dreams; CitationGems, Athletic Crusade;CitationDownes, “From Boys to Men;” CitationYamada, “‘Traditions’ and Cultural Production” and CitationWinch, “Unlocking the Cape Code.”22.CitationBeck, Scoring for Britain; Keys, Globalizing Sport; CitationElias, The Empire Strikes Out and CitationMxolisi Ndlovu, “Sports as Cultural Diplomacy.”23. Although the three western Allies did not consider the Soviet Union a democracy, the Soviet leaders nonetheless considered their country democratic, as true communism was the ultimate form of democracy.24.CitationMangan, Athleticism and CitationMarkovits and Hellerman, Offside.25. A.R. Bolling to Lucius Clay, May 14, 1946, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 26), Records of the Executive Office – The Office of Adjutant General: General Correspondence & otr recs (Decimal File), 1945–1949, Box 87.26.CitationGoedde, GIs and Germans, 50, 51.27. Philip Noel-Baker to Sir Stanley Rous, February 18, 1946, NA, FO 371/55626.28.CitationWhittaker, Fighter for Peace, 14, 263, 264.29. A.C.W. Drew to H. Godfrey, January 15, 1946, National Archives (NA), London, England, FO 371/55626.30. Youth Activities Monthly Report, August 1949, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 1692), Office of Military Government, Wuerttemberg-Baden – Records of the Education & Cultural Relations Div – Community Activ Branch Chief: Corresp & Rel Recs, 1945–1949, Box 959; OMG- Bavaria Monthly Report for Period Ending August 31, 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 612), Records of the Education and Cultural Relations Division – Records of the Community Education Branch – Records re the Work of the Youth Activities Section, Box 143.31.CitationBildung – Entfaltung; Arrangements for 8-day courses for youth leaders in Vlotho, May 10, 1946, FO 1050/1299, NA; Aksel G. Nielsen, History and Development of Ruit Youth Leadership School, July 6, 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 612), Records of the Education and Cultural Relations Division – Records of the Community Education Branch – Records re the Work of the Youth Activities Section, Box 148.32. Aksel G. Nielsen, History and Development of Ruit Youth Leadership School, July 6, 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 612), Records of the Education and Cultural Relations Division – Records of the Community Education Branch – Records re the Work of the Youth Activities Section, Box 148.33. Aksel G. Nielsen to Director, Dr. E.P. Lam, November 4, 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 613), Records of the Education and Cultural Relations Division – Records of the Community Education Branch – Records re the German Youth Activities Program (GYA), Box 152; Aksel G. Nielsen, History and Development of Ruit Youth Leadership School, July 6, 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 612), Records of the Education and Cultural Relations Division – Records of the Community Education Branch – Records re the Work of the Youth Activities Section, Box 148; Appendix, Topical Report, Youth Leadership School in Ruit, June 10, 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 1692), Office of Military Government, Wuerttemberg-Baden – Records of the Education & Cultural Relations Div – Community Activ Branch Chief: Corresp & Rel Recs, 1945–1949, Box 959.34. “Giving Youth New Goals: A Report of the Youth Activities Section, Education and Religious Affairs Branch,” August 1946, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 23), Records of the Executive Office – The Chief of Staff: Records Maintained for Mil Gov, Lt Gen Lucius D. Clay, 1945–1949, Box 24.35. Office of Military Government – Wuerttemberg-Baden Weekly Summary Report, June 21 [1946], NARA, RG 260 (Entry 612), Records of the Education and Cultural Relations Division – Records of the Community Education Branch – Records re the Work of the Youth Activities Section, Box 143.36.CitationHogan, The Marshall Plan, 59–60 and CitationHughes, “Hard Heads, Soft Money?” 317.37.CitationBark and Gress, A History, vol. 1, 203.38.CitationTurner, “Great Britain,” 704.39. Kurt Schaffner, “Does the currency reform affect sports?” June 21 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 1692) Office of Military Government, Wuerttemberg-Baden – Records of the Education & Cultural Relations Div – Community Activ Branch Chief: Corresp & Rel Recs, 1945–1949, Box 968.40. Kurt Schaffner to Leon Shelnutt, July 29, 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 1693), Office of Military Government, Wuerttemberg-Baden – Records of the Education & Cultural Relations Div – Youth Activities Section: Corresp & Related Recs, 1947–1949, Box 972.41. The German football championships included teams from the American, British and French zones. Attempts to include the Soviet zone failed when Soviet authorities refused to allow participation by German teams from their zone. Kurt Schaffner to Leon Shelnutt, July 7, 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 1692), Office of Military Government, Wuerttemberg-Baden – Records of the Education & Cultural Relations Div – Community Activ Branch Chief: Corresp & Rel Recs, 1945–1949, Box 960.42. Office of Military Government, Wuerttemberg-Baden Quarterly Report, Second Quarter 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 612), Records of the Education and Cultural Relations Division – Records of the Community Education Branch – Records re the Work of the Youth Activities Section, Box 146.43. Aksel G. Nielsen, Semi-monthly report for the period ending June 30, 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 1692), Office of Military Government, Wuerttemberg-Baden – Records of the Education & Cultural Relations Div – Community Activ Branch Chief: Corresp & Rel Recs, 1945–1949, Box 959.44. Aksel Nielsen to E. Thommen, July 28, 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 1693), Office of Military Government, Wuerttemberg-Baden – Records of the Education & Cultural Relations Div – Youth Activities Section: Corresp & Related Recs, 1947–1949, Box 973.45.CitationDefrance, “L'apport Suisse.”46. Minutes, FIFA Executive Committee Meeting, October 23, 1946, FIFA, Executive Committee Meeting Agenda Minutes, 1940–1946; Minutes, FIFA Executive Committee Meeting, Sepember 23, 1947, FIFA, Executive Committee Circular to Members, 1946–1957; Minutes, FIFA Executive Committee Meeting, April 15–6, 1948, FIFA, Executive Committee Meeting Agenda Minutes, 1947–1950; Extrait du PV du Congrès de Londres, 1948, FIFA, Correspondence with National Associations SUI 1938–1950.47. The amateur-professional debate plagued the Olympic movement during the majority of the twentieth century, especially in football. OMGUS learned that “Switzerland did not send a team to London because the best players cannot qualify under the amateur rules.” Aksel G. Nielsen, Semi-monthly report for the period ending July 31, 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 1692), Office of Military Government, Wuerttemberg-Baden – Records of the Education & Cultural Relations Div – Community Activ Branch Chief: Corresp & Rel Recs, 1945–1949, Box 959.48. Ibid.49. Betr. F.C. München in St. Gallen, September 10, 1948, Schweizer Fussball Verband (SFV), Bern, Switzerland, F.I.F.A. Spiele Gegen Deutsche Mannschaften 1948–1949.50. Julies Rimet to I. Schricker, September 28, 1948, FIFA, Membres du Comité Exécutif – Dossiers individuels – M. Jules Rimet Correspondance 1.1.1950.51. Youth Activities Monthly Report, October 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 612), Records of the Education and Cultural Relations Division – Records of the Community Education Branch – Records re the Work of the Youth Activities Section, Box 143.52. Kurt Schaffner to Leon Shelnutt, September 2, 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 1692), Office of Military Government, Wuerttemberg-Baden – Records of the Education & Cultural Relations Div – Community Activ Branch Chief: Corresp & Rel Recs, 1945–1949, Box 960; Youth Activities Monthly Report, October 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 612), Records of the Education and Cultural Relations Division – Records of the Community Education Branch – Records re the Work of the Youth Activities Section, Box 143.53. “Nicht nur um des Sportes willen,”Stuttgarter Nachrichten, October 11, 1948, 3.54. Anderegg to E. Thommen, September 16, 1948, SFV, F.I.F.A. Spiele Gegen Deutsche Mannschaften 1948–1949 and A. Moser to E. Thommen, September 16, 1948, SFV, F.I.F.A. Spiele Gegen Deutsche Mannschaften 1948–1949.55. “Ueber allem stand die Freundschaft,” Süddeutsche Zeitung, October 12, 1948, 6.56. Youth Activities Monthly Report, October 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 612), Records of the Education and Cultural Relations Division – Records of the Community Education Branch – Records re the Work of the Youth Activities Section, Box 143; “Städtespiel Stuttgart-Zürich 6:1 (3:0),” Neue Zürcher Zeitung, October 11, 1948, 4; “Stuttgart-Zürich im Länderspielformat,” Stuttgarter Nachrichten, October 11, 1948, 4; “Ueber allem stand die Freundschaft,” Süddeutsche Zeitung, October 12, 1948, 6; “Fussball zwischen zwei Sonntagen,” National Zeitung Basel, October 12, 1948, 5. The Swiss national team played a friendly match against Czechoslovakia the same day as the German–Swiss matches, but only one player from the six Swiss teams earned a cap with the national team: Alfred ‘Freddy’ Bickel, who regularly played for Grasshopper and also represented Switzerland in the 1938 and 1950 World Cup tournaments. “1948 Swiss football team members against Czechoslovakia,” http://www.rsssf.com/tablesz/zwit-intres-det.html#4054 (accessed June 12, 2012).57. Sport Programm, Munich, October 9–10, 1948, FIFA, Correspondence with National Associations SUI 1938–1950.58. “Ein Freundschaftsbeweis – keine Prestigefrage,” Stuttgarter Nachrichten, October 9, 1948, 5.59. “Drei Siege über die Schweizer Sportfreunde,” Badische Neueste Nachrichten, October 11, 1948, 3.60. “München grüßt St. Gallen,” Süddeutsche Zeitung October 9, 1948, 6.61. “Politische Spekulationen um ein Fußballspiel,” Neue Zürcher Zeitung, October 15, 1948, 2 (emphasis in original); Sport Programm, Munich, October 9–10, 1948, FIFA, Correspondence with National Associations SUI 1938–1950; Koller, “Das Boykottspiel,” 27–37.62. “Stuttgart-Zürich im Länderspielformat,” Stuttgarter Nachrichten, October 11, 1948, 1, 4.63. “Drei Siege über die Schweizer Sportfreunde,” Badische Neueste Nachrichten, October 11, 1948, 3.64. “Nicht nur um des Sportes willen,” Stuttgarter Nachrichten, October 11, 1948, 3.65. “Drei Siege über die Schweizer Sportfreunde,” Badische Neueste Nachrichten, October 11, 1948, 3.66. “Schweizer Sportler sind wieder die Ersten,” Stuttgarter Nachrichten, October 9, 1948, 5.67. Aksel Nielsen to Kurt Schaffner, November 26, 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 1693), Office of Military Government, Wuerttemberg-Baden – Records of the Education & Cultural Relations Div – Youth Activities Section: Corresp & Related Recs, 1947–1949, Box 973.68. A later OMGUS report stated that, contrary to newspaper reports of an attendance of 35,000, the Karlsruhe–Basel match had an attendance of only 18,000 people and yielded a profit of just 600 DM. The inefficient handling of the arrangements for the game by the committee in charge of this game was the reason for the ‘meagre profits.’ Youth Activities Monthly Report, November 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 612), Records of the Education and Cultural Relations Division – Records of the Community Education Branch – Records re the Work of the Youth Activities Section, Box 143.69. Europa Union to Ernst Thommen, October 15, 1948, SFV, F.I.F.A. Spiele Gegen Deutsche Mannschaften 1948–1949.70. SFAV to H. Käser, November 18, 1948, SFV, F.I.F.A. Spiele Gegen Deutsche Mannschaften 1948–1949.71. I. Schricker to SFAV, October 22, 1948, FIFA, Correspondence with National Associations SUI 1938–1950.72. With the change in FIFA's attitude regarding Germany over the next few months, the return games never took place. Letter, Aksel Nielsen to Ernst Thommen, November 10, 1948, SFV, F.I.F.A. Spiele Gegen Deutsche Mannschaften 1948–1949.73. Thommen and Käser to FIFA, December 20, 1948, FIFA, Correspondence with National Associations SUI 1938–1950. The French version of this letter is dated December 17, 1948.74. Ibid.75. Charles P. Gross to Julies Rimet, n.d. [March/April 1949], NARA, RG 260 (Entry 1693) Office of Military Government, Wuerttemberg-Baden – Records of the Education & Cultural Relations Div – Youth Activities Section: Corresp & Related Recs, 1947–1949, Box 972.76. “Gleiches recht für Alle!” Sport, December 17, 1948, FIFA, Correspondence with National Associations SUI 1938–1950.77. “Solidaritätsaktion,” der Schweizer Sportler” (Sport, December 22, 1948, FIFA, Correspondence with National Associations SUI 1938–1950) and “Die Buße ist bezahlt!” (Sport, December 24, 1948, FIFA, Correspondence with National Associations SUI 1938–1950).78. “Zum Sport-Boykott gegen Deutschland” (Neue Zürcher Zeitung, December 22, 1948, 10).79. Minutes, FIFA Executive Committee Meeting, May 6, 1949, FIFA, Executive Committee Meeting Agenda Minutes, 1947–1950.80. Ansprache des Bundespräsidenten Professor Dr. Theodor Heuss bei der Feier der Sportjugend in Bonn, September 25, 1949, Carl und Liselott Diem Archiv, Deutsche Sporthochschule, Cologne, Germany, Mappe 87.81. Minutes, 162nd Conference, Directors, Education Branch, July 1, 1949, NA, FO 1050/1110; Football Association International Committee Minutes, December 12, 1949, FA Minutes 1949–1950, The Football Association, London.82. Monthly Report – January 1950, Youth Section, British Troops Berlin, January 28, 1950, NA, FO 1050/1090.83. Minutes, FIFA Executive Committee Meeting, September 23, 1950, FIFA, Executive Committee Meeting Agenda Minutes, 1947–1950.84.CitationDeutscher Fußball-Bund, 100 Jahre DFB, 42.85. Heinz Koeppler quoted in CitationMayne, In Victory, 132, 71, 72.86. Aksel Nielsen, “Background on Today's Two Important Football Games,” September 27, 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 1693), Office of Military Government, Wuerttemberg-Baden – Records of the Education & Cultural Relations Div – Youth Activities Section: Corresp & Related Recs, 1947–1949, Box 973.87.CitationMilward, Reconstruction.88. Proces-Verbal, 1950 FIBT Congress, February 4, 1950, Fédération Internationale de Bobsleigh et de Tobaganning, Milan, Italy.89. “Politische Spekulationen um ein Fußballspiel” (Neue Zürcher Zeitung, October 15, 1948, 2 (emphasis in original)).90. Deutscher Fußball-Bund, 100 Jahre DFB, 22, 42, 337 and CitationSchweizerische Fussball un Athletik Verband, Das goldene Buch, 130, 137.91. Youth Activities Monthly Report, October 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 612) Records of the Education and Cultural Relations Division – Records of the Community Education Branch – Records re the Work of the Youth Activities Section, Box 143.92. Schweizerische Fussball und Athletik Verband, Das goldene Buch, 250 and Deutscher Fußball-Bund, 100 Jahre DFB, 40.93. Kurt Schaffner to Aksel Nielsen, December 6, 1948, NARA, RG 260 (Entry 1693), Office of Military Government, Wuerttemberg-Baden – Records of the Education & Cultural Relations Div – Youth Activities Section: Corresp & Related Recs, 1947–1949, Box 973.Additional informationNotes on contributorsHeather DichterHeather Dichter is an assistant professor in the Department of Sport Management and Media at Ithaca College. She has published articles in Stadion and History of Education and co-edited Olympic Reform: Ten Years Later (Routledge) with Bruce Kidd.