‘Not without the Consent and Goodwill of the Common People’: The Community as a Legal Authority in Medieval Sweden
2014; Routledge; Volume: 35; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/01440365.2014.925173
ISSN1744-0564
Autores Tópico(s)Medieval Literature and History
ResumoAbstractThe article investigates the legal authority of the people in later medieval Sweden. Three features are especially focused on. The first aspect of communal legal authority is the representation and participation of the local laity in the judicial process as co-judges, members of the nämnd, the Swedish equivalent of the jury, or town councillors. They also acted as surveyors, compurgators and inspectors in legal disputes. The second aspect is the role of the community, the people of the province, as lawmakers. Finally, the article looks at the role of medieval Swedish communities in choosing judges, juries and parish priests as well as electing kings. The article argues that the legal authority of the people in medieval Sweden was influenced by and reformulated through the church by learned doctrines on majority decisions and the quod omnes tangit maxim. After the Middle Ages, the nämnd and the representation of the peasant estate at parliament became some of the constituents of the national legal identity of Sweden vis-à-vis other countries. I am indebted to Tuija Ainonen, Sini Kangas, Philip Line, Heikki Pihlajamäki, Charlotte Vainio, Mark Godfrey and the two anonymous referees whose comments have much improved this article. I would also like to thank Bruce Brasington and Danica Summerlin for their help with some source editions. Albrecht Classen and Marilyn Sandidge have also made certain suggestions for the text.Notes1 '[A]lmoghanum til lagh ok ræt … vtan ia ok goþ uilia þera', Konungsbalken (hereafter Kg) 5, Konung Magnus Erikssons Landslag (hereafter MEL), Corpus iuris Sueo-Gotorum antiqui (hereafter CISGA) X, ed. C.J. Schlyter, Lund, 1862, 12. All translations from Swedish into English are mine unless otherwise indicated.2Brian Tierney, Foundations of the Conciliar Theory: The Contribution of the Medieval Canonist from Gratian to the Great Schism (Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought 4), Cambridge, 1955, 23.3Harold J. Berman, Law and Revolution: The Formation of the Western Legal Tradition, Cambridge and London, 1983, 51. Cf. Arthur P. Monahan, Consent, Coercion and Limit: The Medieval Origins of Parliamentary Democracy, Kingston and Montreal, 1987, 51–55.4E.g., Kenneth Pennington, 'Law, Legislative Authority, and Theories of Government, 1150–1300', in J.H. Burns, ed., The Cambridge History of Medieval Political Thought c. 350–c. 1450, Cambridge, New York, et al., 2007, 424–453, at 426–428, 430; Otto Brunner, Land and Lordship: Structures of Governance in Medieval Austria, trans. and intro. Howard Kaminsky and James Van Horn Melton, Philadelphia, 1984, 97, 296–297, 307–308, 324–325, 334–335, 354–355; Berman, Law and Revolution, 52, 56–57, 60, 62, 307.5According to the Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford, 1989, 798, authority is defined as follows: 'power or right to enforce obedience; moral or legal supremacy; the right to command, or give an ultimate decision; power over, or title to influence, the opinions of others; power to inspire belief; authoritative statement; weight of testimony'. See also Leonard Krieger, 'Authority', in Philip P. Wiener et al., eds., Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas 1, New York, 1968, 141–162, at 141.6I have used both the translations into present-day Swedish as well as the edited and printed originals. For a short English introduction to the Swedish medieval laws and legislation, see Thomas Lindkvist, 'Law and the Making of the State in Medieval Sweden: Kingship and Communities', in Antonio Padoa-Schioppa, ed., Legislation and Justice, Oxford, 1997, 211–228, at 213–219.7The dating of the laws of King Magnus Eriksson is complicated, but as it is irrelevant for this article, I will not discuss it in more detail here. The provinces were East and West Gothia (Sw. Östgötaland and Västgötaland), Småland, Västmanland, Södermanland, Dalecarlia (Sw. Dalarna), Uppland, Hälsingland, and the island of Gotland. The law of West Gothia is preserved in two different versions.8For the influence of canon law, see, e.g., L.M. Bååth, Bidrag till den kanoniska rättens historia i Sverige, Stockholm, 1905, esp. 3–56, 78–80, 123–135, 203–215.9Y.M.-J. Congar, 'Quod Omnes Tangit, Ab Omnibus Tractari et Approbari Debet', 36 Revue historique de droit français et étranger (1958), 210–259, at 258.10Anthony Black, 'The Individual and Society', in J.H. Burns, ed., The Cambridge History of Medieval Political Thought c. 350–c. 1450, Cambridge, New York, et al., 2007, 588–606, at 591, 606.11Ibid., 606.12Lester K. Little, 'The Size and Governance of Medieval Communities', 15 Studia Gratiana (1972), 379–397, at 379.13Michael Nordberg, I kung Magnus tid. Norden under Magnus Eriksson 1317–1374, Stockholm, 1995, 31.14Lindkvist, 'Law and the Making of the State', 212.15Kjell Å. Modéer, 'Ting', in Kulturhistorisk leksikon for nordisk middelalder fra vikingetid til reformationstid (hereafter KLNM), vol. 18, 2nd ed., 1972; Copenhagen, 1982, cols. 334–346, at 334.16K.F. Söderwall, Ordbok öfver svenska medeltids-språket, vol. II, Lund, 1900–1918, 703; Modéer, 'Ting', 334.17In medieval Latin used in Scandinavia, placitum signified a ting, assembly: Lexicon mediae latinitatis Danicae VI, ed. Franz Blatt, Aarhus, 2005, 536–537.18E.g., 23.8.1299, 1281, Diplomatarium Suecanum (hereafter DS) II, ed. J.G. Liljegren, Stockholm, 1837, 297; 7.12.1299, 1294, ibid., 304.191222–30, 216, DS I, ed. J.G. Liljegren, Stockholm, 1829, 228; 24.4.1301, 1339, DS II, 341; 16.7.1324, 2475, DS III, ed. Bror Emil Hildebrand, Stockholm, 1842, 1850, 655; 2.5.1300, 1312, DS II, 321.2014–15.8.1225, 240, DS I, 246; 5.5.1305, 1464, DS II, 443; 2.6.1304, 1429, DS II, 418.21E.g., 24.2.1315, 2005, DS III, 204; 20.8.1321, 2315, ibid., 521.221297–1308, 1745, DS II, 687; 1225, 836, DS I, 692.231297–1308, 1745, DS II, 688. See also 2.5.1300, 1312, ibid., 321.24E.g., 14–15.8.1225, 240, DS I, 246.25For simplicity's sake, I will alternatively call the Swedish nämnd 'jury', albeit with reservations, as the English jury, and Swedish nämnd were two separate institutions developing independently and in different directions.2618.3.1298, 1221, DS II, 249.27There is abundant literature on the origins and development of the Swedish nämnd. Some of the more recent are: Gösta Åqvist, Kungen och rätten: Studien till uppkomsten och den tidigare utvecklingen av kungens lagstiftningsmakt och domrätt under medeltiden (Rättshistoriskt bibliotek [hereafter RB] 43), Lund, 1989, esp. 272–324; Pia Letto-Vanamo, Käräjäyhteisön oikeus: Oikeudenkäyttö Ruotsi-Suomessa ennen valtiollisen riidanratkaisun vakiintumista [The Justice of the Local Community: The Judicature in Sweden and Finland before the Establishment of Governmental Resolution of Disputes] (Oikeushistorian julkaisuja 2), Helsinki, 1995, 133–151.28K.F. Söderwall, Ordbok öfver svenska medeltids-språket 2:1, Lund, 1891–1900, 126–127.29Lindkvist, 'Law and the Making of the State', 224.30Heikki Ylikangas, Valta ja väkivalta keski- ja uuden ajan taitteessa [Power and Violence between the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period], Porvoo, 1988, 140–146; Letto-Vanamo, Käräjäyhteisön oikeus, 212–215; see also S. Claëson, Häradshövdingeämbetet i senmedeltidens och Gustav Vasas Sverige (RB 39), Lund, 1987, 222–233.31Additamenta (hereafter Add.) 2:14, Yngre Västgötalagen (hereafter VgL II), SLL 5, ed. Åke Holmbäck and Elias Wessén, Uppsala, 1946, 375; Add. 2:14, Västgötalagen, CISGA I, ed. H.S. Collin and C.J. Schlyter, Stockholm, 1827, 225. According to the mid-fourteenth-century law of King Magnus Eriksson, the lagman was to organize four yearly provincial court sessions at the main town of his district, often a cathedral town, but also yearly at all the hundreds of his district, Rättegångsbalken (hereafter R) 8, Magnus Erikssons landslag i nusvensk tolkning (hereafter MEL), ed. Åke Holmbäck and Elias Wessén (RB 6), Stockholm, 1962, 162. See also G. Hafström, 'Lagman: Sverige', KLNM 10, 2nd ed., Copenhagen, 1982, cols.150–151; Lindkvist, 'Law and the Making of the State', 219.32Jordabalken (hereafter J) 14, Hälsingelagen (hereafter HL), SLL 3, ed. Åke Holmbäck and Elias Wessén, Uppsala, 1940, 361.33Såramålsbalken 2, Äldre Västgötalagen (hereafter VgL I), SLL 5, 52; Særæ malum bolkar 2, VgL, CISGA I, 17.34R 1; Östgötalagen (hereafter ÖgL); SLL 1, ed. Åke Holmbäck and Elias Wessén, Uppsala, 1933, 175; Ræfsta Balkær 1, ÖgL, CISGA II, ed. H.S. Collin and C.J. Schlyter, Stockholm, 1830, 165.35E.g., Giftermålsbalken 6, VgL II, SLL 5, 283; Förnämesbalken 35, ibid., 355; Add. 2:3, 2:5, 2:8, ibid., 374; J 3,Västmannalagen (hereafter VmL), SLL 2, ed. Åke Holmbäck and Elias Wessén, Uppsala, 1933, 107.36Manhelgdsbalken 21, VmL, SLL 2, 74.37X 3.9.1, Corpus iuris canonici II, 506. See also Léo Moulin, 'Sanior et maior pars. Note sur l'évolution des techniques électorales dans les Ordres religieux du VIe au XIIIe siècle,' 36 Revue historique de droit français et étranger (1958), 368–397, 491–529; Pierre Michaud-Quantin, Universitas. Expressions du mouvement communautaire dans le moyen-âge latin (L'église et l'état au Moyen Age 13), Paris, 1970, esp. 271–284.38The länsman was the royal official in each hundred, Gerhard Hafström, 'Lensmann: Sverige', in KLNM 10, 2nd ed., Copenhagen, 1982, cols. 509–512.39Byggningabalken (hereafter B) 8, Dalalagen (hereafter DL), SLL 2, ed. Åke Holmbäck and Elias Wessén, Uppsala, 1933), 49; B 21, ibid., 53; B 22:2, ibid., 54; B 38, ibid., 57–58; B 5:1, 9, 17:3, 22, VmL, 132, 136, 142, 145. See also 22.7.1365, 7201, DS VIII, ed. Jan Liedgren and Ernst Nygren, Stockholm, 1953–76, 682.40Manhelgdsbalken 21, VmL, SLL 2, 74.41R 7, Upplandslagen (hereafter UL), SLL 1, ed. Åke Holmbäck and Elias Wessén, Uppsala, 1933, 201; R 5, DL, SLL 2, 102–103; R 17, VmL, SLL 2, 171.42R 6, 8, VmL, SLL 2, 167–168 and Þingmala Balkær 6, 8, Iuris Vestmannici Codex Recentior (hereafter VmL), CISGA V, ed. C.J. Schlyter, Lund, 1841, 228.43Letto-Vanamo, Käräjäyhteisön oikeus, 219–223.4477, Excerpts of Lyderkinus, SLL V, 406; VgL, CISGA I, 269.4510.3.1331, 2838, DS IV, ed. Bror Emil Hildebrand, Stockholm, 1853 and 1856, 206: 'in generali placito … ex nempdariis et communitate rusticorum in nærichia testimonium audiuisse'.46E.g., 25.2.1325, 2497, DS III, 671: 'som nämpdemænnen witnade effter yterste lagha wtletanz … thesse XII såtho i næmpdenne aff heredeno [names of twelve men from various parts of Dalarna]'.47Upplands lagmansdombok 1490–1494 efter en Uppsala-handskrift, ed. Karl Henrik Karlsson (Samlingar utgifna af Svenska Fornskrift-sällskapet 132), Stockholm, 1907, e.g., 20–21, 23–25. See also Claëson, Häradshövdingeämbetet, 59.48Little, 'Size and Governance', 391.49See also Heikki Pihlajamäki, 'Europäische Rechtskultur? Rechtskommunikation und grenzüberschreitende Einflüsse in der Frühen Neuzeit', Clio@Thémis 2. Available online at: http://www.cliothemis.com/Europaische-Rechtskultur (accessed on 9 June 2014), 36–38.50E.g., Henrik Schück, Stockholm vid 1400-talets slut, Stockholm, 1951, 97, 341.51Olaus Magnus Gothus, Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus, Rome, 1555, liber 8, cap. 1, 243.52'[Æ]t fornæmde laghmæn, huar af laghsaghu sinne, skal, meþ samþykkio aldra þera i laghsaghu boande æru, tolf mæn taka vitra ok snialla, meþ þem a næmdum daghi', Kg 4, MEL, CISGA X, 7; Kg 4, MEL, 4; Jerker Rosén, Striden mellan Birger Magnusson och hans bröder: Studier i nordisk politisk historia 1302–1319, Lund, 1939, 375–390; Karl Olivecrona, Döma till konung: En rättshistorisk undersökning (Skrifter utgivna av Juridiska fakulteten i Lund 1) Lund, 1942, 10–18.53Rosén, Striden mellan Birger Magnusson och hans bröder, 331–332.54E.g., Kg 6, Kuningas Kristoferin maanlaki 1442 (King Christopher's Law of the Realm, hereafter KrL), ed. Martti Ulkuniemi (Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seuran Toimituksia 340), Helsinki, 1978, 31; Olivecrona, Döma till konung, 10–18.55Rosén, Striden mellan Birger Magnusson och hans bröder, 52.56Kg 4:1, MEL, 4. Occasionally, the king and his councillors made mutual agreements that they would elect his eldest son as king. Alternatively, the successor of the king could be elected already during his lifetime, such as during King Magnus Birgersson's reign (1275–90); see, e.g., Rosén, Striden mellan Birger Magnusson och hans bröder, 43–54. Examples of magnates being elected as kings were Karl Knutsson (Bonde) in 1448 and Gustav Eriksson (Vasa) in 1523.57Seppo Aalto, 'Keskiaika (n. 1150–1523)' [Middle Ages], Suomen hallitsijat: Kuninkaat, keisarit ja presidentit [Rulers of Finland: Kings, Emperors and Presidents], Porvoo, 2001, 13.58R 1, VmL, SLL 2, 166 and Þingmala Balkær, VmL, CISGA V, ed. C.J. Schlyter, Lund, 1841, 226.59'[A]zega non habet quemquam iudicare nisi plebs elegit ipsum et ipse coram … imperatore romano iuraverit', Nikolaas E. Algra, 'The Lex Frisionum: The Genesis of a Legalized Life', in F.J.M. Feldbrugge, ed., The Law's Beginnings, Leiden and Boston, 2003, 77–92, at 84, 92.60Hafström, 'Lagman: Sverige', 150.61R 3, VgL I, SLL V, 109; R 3, VgL I, CISGA I, 37.62R 1–2, MEL, 160; Þingmala Balkenum, MEL, CISGA X, 211.63'[M]edh mangum adhrum godhum landzmannom', Addenda 12, Södermannalag (hereafter SdmL) CISGA IV, ed. C.J. Schlyter, Lund, 1838, 194; Additamenta 12, SdmL, SLL 3, ed. Åke Holmbäck and Elias Wessén, Uppsala, 1940, 195.64Kk 2, Magnus Erikssons stadslag i nusvensk tolkning (hereafter MESL), ed. Åke Holmbäck and Elias Wessén (RB 7), Stockholm, 1966, 3.65Marko Lamberg, Dannemännen i stadens råd: Rådmanskretsen i nordiska köpstäder under senmedeltiden (Monografier utgivna av Stockholms stad 155), Stockholm, 2001, 29–35, 40–41.66Kk 7, MESL, 5; Kk 7, Söderköpings lagbok 1387, ed. Elias Wessén (RB 15), Stockholm, 1971: 'tha sculu the radha sum flere saman halda oc bätre skäl hawa. oc foghoten mz halder '.67Some manuscript variants have saniori, saner, instead of seniori.68Concilium Lateranense III (1179), 16: 'Cum in cunctis ecclesiis quod pluribus et senioribus [var. sanioribus] fratribus visum fuerit, incunctanter debeat observari, grave nimis et reprehensione est dignum, quod quarumdam ecclesiarum pauci, quandoque non tam de ratione quam de propria voluntate, ordinationem multoties impediunt et ordinationem ecclesiasticam procedere non permittunt. Quocirca praesenti decreto statuimus, ut nisi a paucioribus et inferioribus aliquid rationabile fuerit ostensum, appellatione remota, semper praevaleat et suum consequatur effectum, quod a maiori et seniori [var. saniori] parte capituli fuerit consitutum.' Conciliorum Oecumenicorum decreta, ed. Josephus Alberigo et al., 3rd ed., Bologna, 1973, 219–220.69Ulrich Stutz, Die Eigenkirche als Element des mittelalterlich-germanisches Kirchenrechts, Darmstadt, [1894] 1955, esp. 48–51, 79–87; Susan Wood, The Proprietary Church in the Medieval West, Oxford, New York, et al., 2006, esp. 651–658, 883–921.70X 3.38.25, Corpus iuris canonici II: in the title, 'Ex constructione ecclesiae, facta de consensu episcopi, acquiritur ius patronatus', and in the text, 'si quis ecclesiam cum assensu dioecesani episcopi construxit, ex eo ius patronatus acquirit'.71Georg J.V. Ericsson, Den kanoniska rätten och Äldre Västgötalagens kyrkobalk: En jämförande studie (RB 12), Lund, 1967, 85–87, 120–121; Jan Arvid Hellström, Biskop och landskapssamhälle i tidig svensk medeltid (RB 16), Lund, 1971, 359–365, 374–380.72'Böndir förþu stuk oc sten. oc gundwal [sic!] growu oc kirkio giorþu. Nu ær kirkia war gior. oc till wigslæ boyn. þa giorþu þeer tolf næmpdæ men til biscops. at beþas præst æfti þy sym ræt ær. Aghin böndir wald at wælia præst slikan þær þe wilia innan sæx manaþa. Siþan vti æru sæx manaþa. hawi þa biscopir wald at fa þem præst slikan þær han wil', Kk 1, Iuris Vestmannici codex antiquor (hereafter DL), CISGA V, ed. C.J. Schlyter, Lund, 1841, 3; Kk 1, DL, SLL 2, 3.73Canon law defined a parish (parochia) as a collective of people, parishioners, assigned by the church to a parish priest (parochus), see, e.g., Bernard of Pavia, Bernardi Papiensis Summa Decretalium, ed. Ernst Adolph Theodor Laspeyres, Regensburg, 1860. Reprinted Graz, 1956, lib. 3, tit. 25, 103–104.74Kk 1, DL, SLL 2, 3. The six-month period may have been inspired by X 3.38.22 even if it applied only to ecclesiastical patrons, as four months was to suffice for lay patrons: as the title explains: '[S]i quaestio iuris patronatus infra sex menses non terminatur a tempore vacationis, libere potest episcopus sine praesentatione ibidem instituere rectorem. H. d. Sed intellige de patronis ecclesiasticis; nam in laicis sufficiunt quatuor menses.'75Kk 4, Smålandslagen, SLL 5, ed. Åke Holmbäck and Elias Wessén, Uppsala, 1946, 424. See also Hellström, Biskop och landskapssamhälle, 376–378.76Kk 4, ÖgL, SLL I, 8. The latter procedure was used in the case of the parish clerk (klockare, lit. bell-ringer): the parish suggested three candidates for the parish priest to decide.77Kk 5, UL, SLL I, 15.78Concilium Lateranense III (1179), 17: 'Quoniam in quibusdam locis ecclesiarum fundatores aut heredes eorum, potestate in qua eos ecclesia hucusque sustinuit, abutuntur et, cum in ecclesia Dei unus debeat esse qui praesit, ipsi plures sine respectu subiectionis eligere moliuntur et, cum una ecclesia unius debeat esse rectoris, … si forte in plures partes fundatorum se vota diffuderint, ille praeficiatur ecclesiae, qui maioribus iuvatur meritis et plurium eligitur et probatur assensu. Si autem hoc sine scandalo fieri nequiverit, ordinet antistes ecclesiam sicut melius secundum Deum viderit ordinandam. Id ipsum etiam faciat, si de iure patronatus quaestio emerserit inter aliquos et cui competat infra tres [var. quattuor; duos] menses non fuerit definitum,' Conciliorum Oecumenicorum decreta, 220.79X 3.38.3, Corpus iuris canonici II: in the title 'Si patroni in praesentando discordant, praefertur praesentatus a maiori parte, si est idoneus, et, si hoc sine scandalo fieri non potest, vel patroni infra tempus debitum non praesentant, episcopus ordinabit ecclesiam', and in the text 'Quoniam in quibusdam locis fundatores ecclesiarum aut heredes eorum potestate, in qua eos ecclesia hucusque sustinuit … pro sua dissensione plurimos repraesentant: … si forte in plures partes fundatorum se vota diviserint, ille praeficiatur ecclesiae, qui maioribus iuvatur meritis et plurimorum eligitur et approbatur assensu. Si autem hoc sine scandalo esse nequiverit, ordinet antistes ecclesiam, sicut melius eam secundum Deum viderit ordinandam. Et id ipsum etiam faciat, si de iure patronatus quaestio emerserit inter aliquos, et, cui competat, infra quatuor menses non fuerit diffinitum'. See also X 3.38.12, Corpus iuris canonici II (title: 'Si patroni ecclesiae vacantis infra tempus, a iure concessum, non presentant, episcopus ordinabit ecclesias') and X 3.38.27, Corpus iuris canonici II (title 'Si questio iuris patronatus inter patronos non diffinitur infra quatuor menses, episcopus ordinabit ecclesiam sine praeiudicio eorundem').80'Uilia bönder kyrkyu göra, tha skal biskups lof til bithia', Kk 2, VgL II, SLL 5, 82; Kk 2, ibid., 203. See also Kk 1:1, UL, SLL 1, 13.81Kk 1:3, UL, SLL 1, 13. The remaining third went to the local church.82Pennington, 'Law, Legislative Authority, and Theories of Government', 451–452.83'[L]egumlacionis seu institucionis auctoritas, et de ipsarum observacione coactivum dare preceptum, ad solam civium universitatem seu ipsius valenciorem partem, tamquam efficientem causam, pertineat, aut ad illum vel illos, cui vel quibus auctoritatem hanc concesserit iam dicta universitas', Marsilius von Padua, Der Verteidiger des Friedens (Defensor pacis), ed. Horst Kusch, Leipziger Übersetzungen und Abhandlungen zum Mittelalter, Series A:2, Berlin, 1958, discourse 1, ch. 13, 144; Marsilius of Padua, Defensor pacis, trans. Alan Gewirth with a new afterword & bibliography by Cary J. Nederman, New York, 1965, 1991, discourse 1, ch. 13, 55; ibid., discourse 1, ch. 12, 48–49. See also Michael Wilks, 'Corporation and Representation in the Defensor Pacis', 15 Studia Gratiana (1972), 253–292; Monahan, Consent, Coercion and Limit, 222–224.84'Scill sopn valdi þer sum flere æru', Kk 11, VgL I, CISGA I, 6; Kk 11, VgL I, SLL 5, 5. However, the younger version of the law only gave the parish the short time of three weeks to decide. Then the right was transferred to the bishop, Kk 21, VgL II, SLL 5, 208. In the Latin version in VgL IV, the text was as follows: 'Item si parochiani contendunt de sacerdote ille optineat, in quem maior pars consenserit', SLL 5, 227.85Hellström, Biskop och landskapssamhälle, 378.86'[S]uerikis lagh, þeem sum almoghin hauer meþ goþuilia ok samþykkio viþer takit ok staþfæst', Kg 5, MEL, CISGA X, 12.87Kb 1, UL, SLL 1, 43 and Kb 1, UL, CISGA III, ed. C.J. Schlyter, Stockholm, 1834, 88: 'þer aghu han til krunu ok kununx dömis skiliæ, landum raþæ, ok riki styræ, lagh at styrkiæ, ok friþ haldæ'.88E.g., Gabriela Bjarne Larsson, Stadgelagstiftning i senmedeltidens Sverige (RB 51), Lund, 1994, esp. 17–47; Mia Korpiola, '"The People of Sweden Shall Have Peace": Peace Legislation and Royal Power in Later Medieval Sweden', in Anthony Musson, ed., Expectation of the Law in the Middle Ages, Bury St. Edmunds, 2001, 35–51; Åqvist, Kungen och rätten, 5–91.89Brunner, Land and Lordship, 296–297, quotation 296.90Royal confirmation, UL, SLL 1, 5–6; Confirmatio, UL, CISGA III, 3–5.91'[K]unnunghæt aff aldræ þeræ halwm sum boæ ok byggiæ j þrim uplandæ folklandum', Confirmatio, UL, CISGA III, 3.92'[B]aþ os mæþ möghlikum bezlum aff aldræ þeræ halwm sum fyrræ næmpdir æru', ibid., 4.93Royal confirmation, UL, SLL 1, 5; Confirmatio, UL, CISGA III, 3–5.94'[M]æþ þom witræstu aff hwariu folklandi', Confirmatio, UL, CISGA III, 4.95'[Þ]a lystu þer þem a þingi þem a hörændi ær um warþæþi framleþis siþæn allir mæn mæþ samsæt ok utæn genmæli wiþ þem laghum takit haffþu', Confirmatio, UL, CISGA III, 5.96Rosén, Striden mellan Birger Magnusson och hans bröder, esp. 63–78, 111–127, 139–153, 224–227, 282–299; Nordberg, I kung Magnus tid, 19–30.97Åke Holmbäck and Elias Wessén, 'Inledning', SLL 3, xiv.98'[A]f aldra thera aluum sum boa ok byggia i suðermanna lande', Confirmatio, Sdml, CISGA IV, 1.99'[M]eð mögheliche bön af andra thera aluum sum i suðermanna lande uisasti æru', ibid., 1–2.100Royal confirmation, SdmL, SLL 3, 3; Confirmatio, Sdml, CISGA IV, 1–2.101'[M]eð þem uitrastu sum i suðermanna lande æru', Confirmatio, Sdml, CISGA IV, 1–2.102'[L]ysto the them laghum ok laghbook a mangum lanzthingum them allum ahorandum thær um uarðaðe', Confirmatio, Sdml, CISGA IV, 3.103'[A]lle með samsæt ok utan genmæle uiðer them laghum glaðlica tacit hafðo', Royal confirmation, SdmL, SLL 3, 3 and Confirmatio, Sdml, CISGA IV, 3.104Usually known as 'Quod omnes tangit ab omnibus approbari debet', but originally '[q]uod omnes similiter tangit ab omnibus comprobetur', Codex Justinianus 5.59.5.3, Corpus iuris civilis II, ed. Paulus Krueger, Berlin, 1959, 231. See also Monahan, Consent, Coercion and Limit, 101–102.105Monahan, Consent, Coercion and Limit, 55–56, 105–106.106X 1.23.7, Corpus iuris canonici II, ed. Æ. Friedberg, Leipzig, 1881, 152–153: 'ab omnibus quod omnes tangit approbari debeat'; Congar, 'Quod Omnes Tangit', 210–259.107Liber sextus 5.12, De regulis iuris 29, Corpus iuris canonici II, 1122.108See also Mia Korpiola, 'Literary Legacies and Canonical Book Collections: Possession of Canon Law Books in Medieval Sweden', in Helle Vogt and Mia Münster-Swendsen, eds., Law and Learning in Medieval Europe, Copenhagen, 2006, 79–103, at 88–101.109E.g., Gaines Post, Studies in Medieval Legal Thought: Public Law and the State, 1100–1322, Princeton, NJ, 1964, 169–180; Pennington, 'Law, Legislative Authority, and Theories of Government', quotation 440. See also Tierney, Foundations of the Conciliar Theory, 49.110'Nam non potest Rex Angliæ ad Libitum suum Leges mutari Regni sui, Principatu namque nedum Regali, sed et Politico, ipse suo Populo dominatur. … Sed longe aliter potest Rex politice imperans Genti suæ, quia nec Leges ipse sine Subditorum Assensu mutare poterit, nec Subjectum Populum renitentem onerare Impositionibus peregrinis', Fortescue De laudibus legum Angliæ. The Translation into English and the Original Latin Text with Notes, ed. and trans. A. Amos, Cambridge, 1825, cap. 9, 218. English trans., ibid., 26–27.111Post, Studies in Medieval Legal Thought, 61–238; Brunner, Land and Lordship, 324–364.112'[O]c swerikis lagh, the som almogen meth godwilia oc samtykkio widertakit hauer, halda oc styrkia oc wæria, swa ath engen olagh gange offuer ræth lagh', Kb 4:7, KrL, CISGA XII, ed. C.J. Schlyter, Lund, 1869, 18; Kb 5:7, MEL, 5.113There is much research on customary law. For one example thereof, see, e.g., Custom: The Development and Use of a Legal Concept in the Middle Ages (Proceedings of the Fifth Carlsberg Academy Conference on Medieval Legal History 2008), ed. Per Andersen and Mia Münster-Swendsen, Copenhagen, 2009.114'Leges … firmantur, cum moribus utentium approbantur', Decretum Gratiani, Corpus iuris canonici I, ed. Æmilius Friedberg, Leipzig, 1879, D. 4 a. c. 4, 6. See also Joseph Canning, The Political Thought of Baldus de Ubaldis (Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought 6), Cambridge, 1987, 56. On the putting together of the Decretum, see especially Anders Winroth, The Making of Gratian's Decretum (Cambridge Studies in Medieval Life and Thought 49), Cambridge, 2000.115Tierney, Foundations of the Conciliar Theory; Anthony Black, 'The Conciliar Movement', in J.H. Burns, ed., The Cambridge History of Medieval Political Thought c. 350–c. 1450, Cambridge, New York, et al., 2007, 573–587. The conciliar movement was triggered by a contested papal election in 1378, immediately after the end of the Avignon papacy the year before.116Congar, 'Quod Omnes Tangit', 242, citing Nicholas of Cusa: 'Legis autem latio, per eos omnes qui per eam stringi debent, aut majorem partem, aliorum electione fieri debet … Et quod omnes tangit ab omnibus approbari debet'.117'Sire grauntez-vous à tenir et garder les leys et les custumes droituteles, les quiels la communauté de vostre royaume aura, eslu, et les defendrez al honour de Dieu à vostre poer.' As cited in H.G. Richardson, 'The English Coronation Oath', 24 Speculum (1949), 44–75, at 64.118Monahan, Consent, Coercion and Limit, xiii.119Post, Studies in Medieval Legal Thought, e.g., 139–140, 153–155, 161–238, quotation 163; Edwin Hall, 'King Henry III and the English Reception of Roman Law Maxim Quod omnes tangit', 15 Studia Gratiana (1972), 127–145.120Richardson, 'English Coronation Oath', 64–65.121Jean Dunbabin, 'Government', in J.H. Burns, ed., The Cambridge History of Medieval Political Thought c. 350–c. 1450, Cambridge, New York, et al., 2007, 477–519, at 512. See also Post, Studies in Medieval Legal Thought, 112–119; Monahan, Consent, Coercion and Limit, 107–108; Rudolfine Freiin von Oer, 'Quod omnes tangit as Legal and Political Argument: Germany, Late Sixteenth Century', 3:1 Parliaments, Estates and Representations (1983), 1–6.122'12. Nullum scutagium vel auxilium ponatur in regno nostro, nisi per commune consilium regni nostri, nisi ad corpus nostrum redimendum, et primogenitum filium nostrum militem faciendum, et ad filiam nostram primogenitam semel maritandam, et ad hec non fiat nisi racionabile auxilium; simili modo fiat de auxiliis de civitate London', Magna Carta. Available online at: http://www.magnacartaplus.org/magnacarta/latin.htm#latin-text (accessed 30 Dec. 2012); '12. No scutage nor aid shall be imposed in our kingdom, unless by the common council of our kingdom; excepting to redeem our person, to make our eldest son a knight, and once to marry our eldest daughter, and not for these, unless a reasonable aid shall be demanded.' English translation by Boyd C. Barrington, Magna Charta and Other Great Charters of England with an[!] Historical Treatise and Copious Explanatory Notes, Philadelphia, 1900, 233. See also Gavin I. Langmuir, 'Per Communi consilium regni in Magna Carta', 15 Studia Gratiana (1972), 467–485.123Dunbabin, 'Government', 512. Cf. Post, Studies in Medieval Legal Thought, 161–162.124'Omnibus et singulis hominibus et ecclesiis dicti regni swecie. jura. libertates. priuilegia et consuetudines antiquas nos inuiolabiliter seruaturos et defensuros toto posse nostro', 8.7.1319, 2199, DS III, 411–412. See also Nordberg, I kung Magnus tid, 28–29.125'Quoniam quidam reges et principes nostri qui pro tempore fuerunt. jura. immunitates. et bonas consuetudines ab antiquo seruatas. hominibus et ecclesiis regni swecie seruauerant minus bene imponentes illegaliter tallias et alia grauamina de sua potencia contra deum. iusticiam et consuetudines patrie obseruatas ab antiquo', ibid., 411.126'Quo facto deliberatione ac examinatione habita diligenti de communi consilio et consensu nostro et communitatis tocius regni … pro defensione et communi vtilitate tocius regni', ibid., 412.127'[N]isi per vnum per nos ad hoc specialiter electum et duos rusticos de communitate cuiuslibet episcopatus per ipsos rusticos ad illud deputandos', ibid., 412.128Kb 5:6, MEL, CISGA X, 5; Kb 4:7, KrL, CISGA XII, 17.129'[D]e consensu omnium, qui interesse habebant', in Ericus Olai, Chronica regni Gothorum: Textkritische Ausgabe, ed. Ella Heuman and Jan Ödberg, (Studia Latina Stockholmiensia 35), Stockholm, 1993, 82.130Monahan, Consent, Coercion and Limit, 97–98.131Dunbabin, 'Government', 515. See also Canning, Political Thought of Baldus, 34, 102, 206.132Arnved Nedkvitne, The Social Consequences of Literacy in Medieval Scandinavia (Utrecht Studies in Medieval Literacy 11), Turnhout, 2004, 75–106, quotation 106.133Claëson, Häradshövdingeämbetet, 110–111, 164–205; Peter Reinholdsson, Uppror eller resningar? Samhällsorganisation och konflikt i senmedeltidens Sverige (Studia Historica Upsaliensia 186), Uppsala, 1998, 180–183.134Yrjö Blomstedt, Laamannin- ja kihlakunnantuomarinvirkojen läänittäminen ja hoito Suomessa 1500- ja 1600-luvuilla (1523–1680):
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