Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

More Than Just Policing: Police Reform in Post-conflict Bougainville

2013; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 20; Issue: 5 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/13533312.2013.853961

1743-906X

Sinclair Dinnen, Gordon Peake,

Gender, Security, and Conflict

AbstractAgainst the generally disappointing outcomes of international police reform in fragile settings, this article examines a New Zealand-supported community policing programme in post-conflict Bougainville. While the programme's engagement with the regular police organization has struggled for traction, support provided to an innovative and socially embedded policing initiative has produced promising results. The reasons behind these divergent outcomes and their implications for international policing are explored in the context of Bougainville's recent history, including the legacies of conflict and the new vision of hybrid policing in the post-conflict political settlement. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSWe would like to acknowledge the New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, the New Zealand Police, the Bougainville Community Policing Program and the Autonomous Bougainville Government for their assistance in enabling us to undertake the fieldwork in Bougainville.ABOUT THE AUTHORSSinclair Dinnen is a senior fellow with the State, Society & Governance in Melanesia program at the Australian National University in Canberra, Australia. His research focuses on legal pluralism, policing, justice, conflict and state formation in the Melanesian countries of the Southwest Pacific.Gordon Peake is a research fellow with the State, Society & Governance in Melanesia program at the Australian National University in Canberra, Australia. He has extensive international experience as a researcher and consultant on security sector reform and has published widely on policing.Notes1 Recent figures indicate that the Australian Federal Police (AFP)'s annual Official Development Assistance (ODA) expenditure of Aus$206 million accounts for 55 per cent of Australia's total ODA expenditure on law and justice assistance: Marcus Cox, Emele Duituturaga and Eric Scheye, Building on Local Strengths – Evaluation of Australian Law and Justice Assistance, Canberra: AusAID, Office of Development Effectiveness, 2012, p.5. From 2005–2011 the New Zealand government invested over NZ$105 million in international police assistance: Clare Manuel, Keith Biddle, Nigel Roberts, Dermot Shields, John van der Heyden and Richard Hooper, Strategic Evaluation of Police Work Funded under the New Zealand Aid Programme 2005–2011. Police Work in Fragile and Conflict-affected Contexts. Wellington: New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2013, p.10.2 Andrew Goldsmith and Sinclair Dinnen, 'Transnational Police Building: Critical Lessons from Timor-Leste and Solomon Islands', Third World Quarterly, Vol.28, No.6, 2007, pp.1091–109; Vandra Harris and Andrew Goldsmith, 'Police in the Development Space: Australia's International Capacity Builders', Third World Quarterly, Vol.33, No.6, 2012, pp.1019–36; Sinclair Dinnen and Abby McLeod, 'Policing Melanesia: International Expectations and Local Realities', Policing & Society, Vol.19, No.4, 2009, pp.333–53; Gordon Peake, 'Partnerships and International Policing: The Reach and Limits of Policy Processes', International Peacekeeping, Vol.18, No.5, 2011, pp.612–26.3 Sinclair Dinnen and Matthew Allen, 'Paradoxes of Postcolonial Police-building: Solomon Islands', Policing & Society, Vol.23, No.2, 2013, pp.222–42; Miranda Forsyth, A Bird that Flies with Two Wings: Kastom and State Justice Systems in Vanuatu. Canberra: ANU E Press, 2012; Rod Nixon, Justice and Governance in East Timor: Indigenous Approaches and the New Subsistence State. Basingstoke: Routledge, 2012.4 Alice Hills, 'Lost in Translation: Why Nigeria's Police Don't Implement Democratic Reforms', International Affairs, Vol.88, No.4, 2012, pp.739–55; Bruce Baker, 'Poverty and Policy in Liberia's Post-Conflict Policing', Police Practice and Research, Vol.11, No.3, 2010, pp.184–96; Gordon Peake, Eric Scheye and Alice Hills (eds), Managing Insecurity: Field Experiences of Security Sector Reform, London: Routledge, 2006.5 Bruce Baker and Eric Scheye, 'Multi-layered Justice and Security Delivery in Post-conflict and Fragile States', Conflict, Security & Development, Vol.7, No.4, 2007, pp.503–28.6 Clifford Shearing, 'A Nodal Conception of Governance: Thoughts on a Policing Commission', Policing & Society, Vol.11, No.3-4, 2001, pp.272–359; Jennifer Wood and Clifford Shearing, Imagining Security, Abingdon: Willan Publishing, 2007.7 Sally Engle Merry, 'Anthropology and International Law', Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol.35, 2006, p.103.8 Volker Boege, M. Anne Brown and Kevin P. Clements, 2009, 'Hybrid Political Orders, Not Fragile States', Peace Review, Vol.21, No.1, 2009, pp.13–21.9 Robin Luckham and Tom Kirk, Security in Hybrid Political Contexts: An End-User Approach. London: The Justice and Security Research Programme, London School of Economics, 2012.10 DfID, Non-State Justice and Security Systems. London: DfID, 2004; Leila Chirayath, Caroline Sage and Michael Woolcock, 'Customary Law and Policy Reform: Engaging with the Plurality of Justice Systems', Background Paper, Washington DC: World Bank, July 2005.; E. Wojkowska, Doing Justice: How Informal Justice Systems Can Contribute, Oslo: UNDP/Oslo Governance Centre, 2006; Brian Z. Tamanaha, Caroline Sage and Michael Woolcock (eds), Legal Pluralism and Development – Scholars and Practitioners in Dialogue, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012.11 Bruce Baker, Multi-choice Policing in Africa, Uppsala: Nordic African Institute, 2007; Louise Andersen, Bjørn Møller and Finn Stepputat (eds), Fragile States and Insecure People? Violence, Security and Statehood in the Twenty-First Century, New York/ Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007; Deval Desai, Deborah Isser, and Michael Woolcock, 'Rethinking Justice Reform in Fragile and Conflict-Affected States – The Capacity of Development Agencies and Lessons from Liberia and Afghanistan', Hague Journal on the Rule of Law, Vol.4, No.1, 2012, pp.54–75.12 Roger Mac Ginty, 'Hybrid Peace: The Interaction between Top-Down and Bottom-Up Peace', Security Dialogue, Vol.41, No.4, 2010, pp.391–412.13 Oliver Richmond, Peace in International Relations, London: Routledge, 2008; David Roberts, Liberal Peacebuilding and Global Governance: Beyond the Metropolis, London: Routledge, 2011.14 Roger Mac Ginty, 'Indigenous Peace-Making versus the Liberal Peace', Cooperation and Conflict, Vol.43, No.2, 2008, pp.139–63; Mac Ginty (see n.11 above).15 Roger Mac Ginty and Oliver P. Richmond, 'The Local Turn in Peace Building: A Critical Agenda for Peace', Third World Quarterly, Vol.34, No.5, 2013, pp.763–83.16 Eric Scheye, 'Some Thoughts on Law and Justice: What to do about the 'Crisis of Confidence'?' Canberra: AusAID, Office of Development Effectiveness, 16 August 2011 (at: www.ode.ausaid.gov.au/publications/documents/scheye-thinkpiece.pdf).17 World Bank, World Development Report 2011: Conflict, Security, and Development, Washington DC: World Bank, 2011.18 Cox et al. (see n.1 above); Manuel et al. (see n.1 above).19 See also, Janice A. Lewis 'Quality Assurance Project Report: Bougainville Community Policing Project', unpublished report, Massey University, 2011.20 James McGovern and Monica Taga, 'Bougainville Community Policing Project: Independent Evaluation', 2009 (at: www.aid.govt.nz/about-aid-programme/measuring-results/evaluation/activity-reports/2010-review-and-evaluation-reports/bougainville-com).21 For Bougainville's pre-conflict history, see Anthony J. Regan and Helga M. Griffin (eds), Bougainville Before the Conflict, Canberra: Pandanus Books, 2005.22 Jill Nash and Eugene Ogan, 'The Red and the Black: Bougainville Perceptions of Other Papua New Guineans', Pacific Studies, Vol.13, No.2, 1990, pp.1–17.23 Melanesian pidgin for 'custom'.24 Anthony J. Regan, 'Causes and Courses of the Bougainville Conflict', Journal of Pacific History, Vol.33, No.3, 1998, pp.269–85.25 James Griffin and Melchior Togolo, 'North Solomons Province, 1974-1990', in R.J. May and A.J. Regan (eds), Political Decentralisation in a New State, Bathurst: Crawford House Publishing, 1997, pp.354–82.26 Amnesty International, Papua New Guinea: Human Rights Violations on Bougainville, 1989-1990, London: Amnesty International, 1990.27 Volker Boege, 'Peacebuilding and State Formation in Post-conflict Bougainville', Peace Review: A Journal of Social Justice, Vol.21, No.1, 2009, p.33.28 Sean Dorney, The Sandline Affair – Politics and Mercenaries and the Bougainville Crisis. Sydney: ABC Books, 1998.29 Anthony J. Regan, Light Intervention – Lessons from Bougainville. Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 2012.30 Pat Howley, Breaking Spears and Mending Hearts. London and Sydney: Zed Books and The Federation Press, 2002.31 Regan (see n.29 above), pp.36–41.32 Andy Carl and Lorraine Garasu (eds), Weaving Consensus – The Papua New Guinea –Bougainville Peace Process, Accord Issue 12, London: Conciliation Resources, 2002; John Braithwaite, Hilary Charlesworth, Peter Reddy and Leah Dunn, Reconciliation and Architectures of Commitment – Sequencing Peace in Bougainville, Canberra: ANU E Press, 2010.33 The new arrangements were constitutionally entrenched through amendments to the PNG Constitution and the enactment of a separate Constitution for the ABG in 2005.34 Bougainville Peace Agreement, clauses 114, 123, 276 and 295.35 Bougainville Peace Agreement, clauses 310–3.36 Bougainville Constitutional Commission, Report of the Third and Final Draft of the Bougainville Constitution. Bougainville: Bougainville Constitutional Commission, July 2004, p.182.37 Council of Elders Act 1996, section 24.38 Constitution of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville, Subsections 13(1) and (2).39 Bougainville Constitutional Commission, Report of the Third and Final Draft (n.36 above), p.233.40 According to the 2000 PNG National Census, 98 per cent of the Bougainville population are rural-based. Figure quoted on the website of the Bougainville Tourism Authority (at: www.bougainvilletourism.org.pg/visitorinfo.html).41 Interview by authors with international police adviser, Arawa, 19 Nov. 2012; Interview by authors with international adviser, Buka, 25 Nov. 2012.42 Interview by authors with international police adviser, Arawa, 19 Nov. 2012.43 Interview by authors with ex-combatant leaders, Buin, 21 Nov. 2012.44 Interview by authors with ex-combatant leaders, Buin, 22 Nov. 2012.45 Focus group discussions with community leaders, Buin, 22 Nov. 2012.46 R.A. Shaw, Bougainville Police Restructure Project – Final Report. Buka: Bougainville Police Service, 9 July 2010, p.10.47 Baker and Scheye, 'Multi-layered Justice', (see n.5 above).48 Matthew Allen, Sinclair Dinnen, Daniel Evans and Rebecca Monson, 'Justice Delivered Locally – Systems, Challenges, and Innovations in Solomon Islands', Justice for the Poor Program Research Report, Washington DC: World Bank, 2013.49 Deborah Isser (ed.), Customary Justice and the Rule of Law in War-Torn Societies, Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2007.50 RAMSI currently funds approximately two-thirds of the total costs of policing in the Solomon Islands: Dinnen and Allen (see n.3 above), p.12.51 Community Auxiliary Police were first introduced in Port Moresby in the early 1990s and subsequently extended to other parts of the country, including Bougainville.52 Interviews by authors with members of the Council of Elders, Arawa, 19 and 20 Nov. 2012; Interviews by authors at a community meeting, Buin, 22 Nov. 2012; Interviews by authors at a community meeting, Tung Village, 24 Nov. 2012.53 Information provided to the authors in Nov. 2012.54 Lewis (see n.19 above).55 Consultations in Tung village, Buka Island, Bougainville, 24 Nov. 2012.56 Dinnen and Allen (see n.3 above), p.12.57 BCPP Statistics, New Zealand Police, 'Bougainville Police Service: Baseline Performance Assessment', Report prepared by New Zealand Police National Manager (Performance), January 2011, p.10.58 Law Commission, Converging Currents – Custom and Human Rights in the Pacific. Wellington: Law Commission, 2006.59 Ruth Saovana-Spriggs, 'Gender and Peace: Bougainvillean Women, Matriliny, and the Peace Process', unpublished PhD, Australian National University, Canberra, 2007.60 Interviews by authors, Arawa, 19 and 20 Nov. 2012; Interviews by authors, Buin, 22 Nov. 2012; Interviews by authors, Tung Village, 24 Nov 2012.61 Stathis N. Kalyvas, 'The Ontology of "Political Violence": Action and Identity in Civil Wars', Perspectives on Politics, Vol.1, 2003, pp.475–94.62 Councils of Elders Act 1996, section 24.63 Interviews by authors, Buka, 23 and 26 Nov. 2012.64 Village Courts are government established courts found throughout PNG and settle minor disputes according to local custom; Interviews by authors, Arawa, 19 and 20 Nov. 2012; Interviews by authors, Buin, 22 Nov. 2012; Interviews by authors, Tung Village, 24 Nov. 2012.65 Joanne Wallis, 'Building a Liberal-local Hybrid Peace and State in Bougainville', The Pacific Review, Vol.25, No.5, 2012, pp.613–35.66 Sally Engle Merry, 'Transnational Human Rights and Local Activism: Mapping the Middle', American Anthropologist, Vol.108, No.1, pp.38–51.