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From la bomba to béisbol: sport and the Americanisation of Puerto Rico, 1898–1950

2011; Routledge; Volume: 28; Issue: 17 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/09523367.2011.627199

1743-9035

Roberta J. Park,

Asian Culture and Media Studies

Abstract The concept of 'Manifest Destiny', which had been of interest to some Americans since the early 1800s, was made a reality by The Spanish-American War 1898. As a consequence of victory the United States gained control of the Philippines and the Island of Puerto Rico. The latter is the focus of this article. Education proved to be an especially useful means for the United States to impose its values upon the resident population. Games and sports were, in many ways, more influential. Within a short time children, youth, and adults were engaging in basketball, volleyball, and other sports for health and, more so, for enjoyment. The close proximity of Puerto Rico to the American mainland facilitated the introduction of baseball, which quickly became the Island's most popular sport. In 1936 the Cincinnati 'Reds' were the first of a long tradition of major league teams that came to the island for Winter League training. Imported sports were of considerable value in bringing Puerto Rico into wider global affairs. Puerto Rico began participating in the Central American and Caribbean Games in 1930 – its athletes first participated at the Olympic Games in 1948. Whereas American sovereignty over the Philippine Islands ended in 1946, Puerto Rico remains an Estado Libre Asociado (Commonwealth). Keywords: Sport as a socializing agentsport and 'soft imperialism'the United States and Puerto Rico Notes 1. Smith, American Empire, 31. 2. See for example, Hardy, How Boston Played; Park, '"Boys' Clubs Are Better Than Policemen's Clubs"'. 3. Johnson, History of YMCA Physical Education, 145–9;160–1. 4. These include but by no means are limited to: Xu, Olympic Dreams; Morris, Marrow of the Nation; Brownell, Training the Body for China. 5. Olivar, History of Physical Education in the Philippines; Ylanan and Ylanan, History and Development of Physical Education in the Philippines. 6. Huertas González, Deporte e Identidad. Ch. 1 of Van Hyning, Puerto Rico's Winter League offers a useful historical account. Books such as Molina, El Equipo del Siglo are concerned mostly with individual players and/or teams. 7. Barbosa Muñiz, American Influence in Puerto Rico on Sports and Recreation. A slightly modified form of this account is published as 'Sports and Recreation' in Bender, The American Presence in Puerto Rico, 313–35. 8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifest_Destiny 9. Greenberg, Manifest Manhood, 20. 10. See for example, Gardner et al., Creation of the American Empire, vol. 1, 191–203. 11. Cited in Wagenheim and Wagenheim, The Puerto Ricans, 77–8. 12. Gardner et al., Creation of the American Empire, 220–21; Madgic et al., The American Experience, 346–8. 13. Columbus called it San Juan de Bautista in honour of St. John the Baptist. 14. The names subsequently were changed: San Juan became applied to the city; Puerto Rico to the island. 15. The Peninsular War, part of the long Napoleonic Wars, pitted France against the allied powers of Spain, the United Kingdom, and Portugal for control of the Iberian Peninsula. 16. Anderson, 'Nineteenth Century Historical Background'. 17. Wagenheim and Wagenheim, The Puerto Ricans, 84–5. 18. See for example, Acosta Belén et al., 'Adíos Boriquen Querida'. 19. For example, '18,000 Attend Opening of Games in San Salvador', New York Times, 17 March 1935; 'Honor Puerto Ricans', New York Times, 28 Feb.1938. 20. 'Seleccionado Preolímpico Contra Penn Esta Noche', El Mundo, 23 June 1949; 'Penn Derroto a Puerto Rico en Atletismo', El Mundo, 26 June 1949; 'Agasajaron a Atletes de Penn en Mayaguez', El Mundo, 27 June 1949. 21. López Yustos, Historia Documental de la Educación en Puerto Rico, 103–16. 22. Osuna, A History of Education in Puerto Rico, 128–35; 143–45. Matters relating to education are put into broader contexts in Cabán, Constructing a Colonial People. 23. Osuna, A History of Education in Puerto Rico, 152–69. 24. Ibid., 129–35; Dexter, 'Education in Porto Rico', 160. Dexter also noted that action was under way to erect an 'out-door gymnasium' in San Juan. 25. Osuna, History of Education in Puerto Rico, 486–91. 26. Mixer, Porto Rico, 233–48. 27. Carr, Puerto Rico, 284. 28. Navarro Rivera, Universidad de Puerto Rico; Osuna, History of Education in Puerto Rico, 152–69. 29. Barbosa Muñiz, American Influence in Puerto Rico on Sports and Recreation. 30. Huertas Gonzales, Deporte e Identidad, 29–30. 31. White, Puerto Rico and Its People, ch. 23. See also Puerto Rico Reconstruction Association, Puerto Rico. 32. See, for example, El Mundo during the 1920s; 38th Annual Report of the Governor of Puerto Rico. 33. Eduardo Valero, 'Foreword', in Van Hyning, Puerto Rico's Winter League. The game was played between the Borinquens and the Almendares. Valero states that baseball was thought to have been brought to Cuba during the 1860s by American sailors and by Cubans who had studied in the United States. 34. Originally called the Puerto Rico Semi-Pro League. 35. Valero, 'Forward', 1–2. 36. Since 1947 a considerable number of Puerto Rican-born players such as Orlando Cepeda and Roberto Clemente have had very successful careers with major league teams in the United States. 37. Van Hyning, Puerto Rico's Winter League; Córdova, Beisbol de Corazón. Puerto Rico currently has the second highest number of individuals of any Latin American country playing in major league baseball. The Dominican Republic is first. 38. White, Puerto Rico and Its People, 138. 39. Huertas Gonzales, Deporte e Identidad, 33–7. 40. Francisco Faberelle, 'Physical Culture Up to the Present Time', La Revista Escolar de Puerto Rico/Puerto Rico School Review 10, no. 4 (1925), 29–30 (hereafter Puerto Rico School Review). 41. Osuna, History of Education in Puerto Rico, 240. 42. Ibid., 147. See also Bender, The American Presence in Puerto Rico, 212–13. 43. Pedro P. Aran, 'Report on Physical Education', Puerto Rico School Review 10, no. 1 (1925): 34–5. 44. Van Dalen and Bennett, A World History of Physical Education, 439–41. 45. Concerns about the health of children and the 1909 White House Conference on the Care of Dependent Children had led to the creation in 1912 of the United States Children's Bureau. See Means, A History of Health Education in the United States, 85–91. 46. Aran, 'Report on Physical Education'. The author refers to the growing number of states that had passed laws making physical training compulsory in public schools. 47. Faberelle, 'Physical Culture Up to the Present Time'. 48. 'Courses Offered by the University of Porto Rico to Train Teachers in Service', Puerto Rico School Review 14, no. 3 (1929), 31. 49. 'Interscholastic Athletic Meet', Puerto Rico School Review 6, no. 8 (1922), 18. 50. 'Interscholastic Track Meets', Puerto Rico School Review 8, no. 8 (1924): 30–1 (Class AA: University of Puerto Rico; Ponce High School; Central High School; Mayaguez High School. Class BB: Arecibo; Bayamon; Fajardo; Mayaguez; Ponce; San Juan. Class A: 14 schools; Class B; six schools. 51. Edith M. Irvine-Rivera, 'Physical Education in the Public Schools of Porto Rico', Puerto Rico School Review 11, no. 1 (1926), 17–18. Current websites that describe Naguabo, Ponce and other Puerto Rican towns and cities, and their history, often include a section dealing with sports. See also http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naguabo,_Puerto_Rico and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponce,_Puerto_Rico#Sports 52. Osuna, A History of Education in Puerto Rico, 478. 53. Irvine-Rivera, 'Physical Education in the Public Schools of Porto Rico'. 54. Fauver, 'The Place of Intercollegiate Athletics'. Regarding Mabel Lee and the 'A Sport for Every Girl/Every Girl in a Sport' ideology see Hult, 'The Governance of Athletics for Girls and Women'. 55. Antonio Gordian, 'Physical Education', Puerto Rico School Review 10, no. 9 (May 1926), 45. 56. 'Sports Department', Puerto Rico School Review 8, no. 1 (Sept. 1923), 36. 57. 'Ligas Seccionales', Puerto Rico School Review 14, no. 3 (1929), 24–5. See also, 'Los Juegos Atléticos Interscolares', Puerto Rico School Review 13, no. 5 (Jan. 1929), 27; 48; and 'Un Programa para las Actividades Atléticas de las Escuelas Superiores de Puerto Rico', Puerto Rico School Review 13, no. 7 (1929), 31–2. 58. 'Public School Relations: Report of the Commissioner of Education: 1929–30', Puerto Rico School Review 15, no. 3 (1930), 18–19; 40. 59. Julio Fiol Negrón, 'Girls Also Have Their Share of Physical Education', Puerto Rico School Review 13, no. 9 (1929), 19; 44; 'University of Porto Rico: Some Urgent Problems and Needs', Puerto Rico School Review 15, no. 7 (1931), 31–2. 60. White, Puerto Rico and Its People, 280. 61. [YMCA] Puerto Rico Report dated 23 June 1909, located in Kautz Family YMCA Archives, University of Minnesota (hereafter Kautz Family YMCA Archives). 62. Gems, The Athletic Crusade, 101–2. 63. [A.F. Grimm], Report of the Physical Director of the San Juan Young Men's Christian Association for the Year October 1, 1915 to September 30, 1916, Kautz Family YMCA Archives. A prominent San Juan jeweller had donated the silver cup that was awarded to the men's volleyball champions. 64. For example, in earlier years the court was divided into three then two zones, the unsupported assumption being that traversing the full length of the court could be too exhausting for females. For valuable historical insights regarding basketball and other emerging sports in Puerto Rico see, Huyke, Los Deportes en Puerto Rico. 65. [Grimm], Report of the Physical Director of the San Juan YMCA, 1915 to 1916, Kautz Family YMCA Archives. 66. Ibid. 67. Gems, The Athletic Crusade, 101–2. 68. Ibid. 69. [Grimm], Report of the Physical Director of the San Juan YMCA, 1915 to 1916. 70. Annual Report of the General Secretary YMCA to the Board of Directors, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1928, Kautz Family YMCA Archives. 71. Letter from L. Sánchez Morales (President of the San Juan YMCA) to F. S. Harmon (General Secretary of the International Committee of the YMCA), 8 Oct. 1932, Kautz Family YMCA Archives. 72. Letter from Manuel Bueno (General Secretary of the San Juan YMCA) to Frank Slack (International Committee of the YMCA), 29 Sept. 1932, Kautz Family YMCA Archives. 73. Frank Campos, 'Physical Education in Porto Rico', Puerto Rico School Review 11, no. 6 (1927), 35; 45. 74. The Y's earlier accomplishments have been summarised in articles such as Fisher, 'The Work of the Young Men's Christian Association'. 75. 'Public School Playgrounds in Porto Rico', The Playground 5 (1912), 385–6. 76. Claude S. Field, 'Recess', Puerto Rico School Review 6, no. 10 (1922), 26–32. 77. 'Play in Porto Rico', The Playground 17 (1923), 360. 78. 'Recreation in Porto Rico', The Playground 16 (1922), 283. 79. Martha Travilla Speakman, 'Recreation in Porto Rico', The Playground 17 (1923), 186. 80. 'The Girl Scouts of America', Puerto Rico School Review 8, no. 6 (1924), 8. 81. 'What the Girl Scouts Have Done in Eight Months', Puerto Rico School Review 8, no. 9 (1924) 15; 'Niñas Eschuchas', Puerto Rico School Review 11, no. 3 (1926), 39–40. 82. Generosa Fernandez de Net, 'The Girl Scout Movement in Porto Rico', Puerto Rico School Review 14, no. 4 (1929), 19. 83. 'Public School Relations: Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1929–30', Puerto Rico School Review 15, no. 3 (1930), 18–19. 84. As more countries entered into competition the name was changed in 1935 from the Central American Games to the Central American and Caribbean Games. 85. Huertas Gonzáles, Deporte e Identidad. 86. Jamaica (a British colony) did likewise with the British flag. 87. http:/www.enciclopediar.org/ing/article.cfm?ref=09021302. See also Huertas Gonzáles, Deporte e Identidad, 43–4. 88. Barbosa Muñiz, La Era de Oro del Atlétismo. 89. For example, 'Nuestro Conjunto Femenino se Apuntó También la Victoria sobre Panamá was the subtitle of 'Puerto Rico Vencio a Mejico Ayer en Volibol', El Mundo, 10 Feb. 1938. Three days earlier it had published an extensive, and very laudatory, article entitled 'Rebekah Colberg, la Muchacha que Quiso Jugar con un Rey': El Mundo, 7 Feb. 1938. 90. Yamila Azize Vargas, 'Saltando Obstáculos: Notas Sobre la Historia de la Mujer Puertorriqueña en el Deporte', in Amarilis Cottó, La Mujer Puertorriqueña, 219–24. 91. 'Senoritas Freed By Sports', New York Times, 27 Feb. 1938. 92. Barbosa Muñiz, La Era de Oro del Atlétismo, 35–7; See also: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebekah_Colberg. (Accessed 20 August 2009). 93. 'Senoritas Freed By Sports'. 94. For example, 'Koli-Kolo se gana a Routis, a Joe Scalfaro y a Eddie Shea', El Mundo, 11 March 1930. 95. Martínez-Rousset, 50 Anos de Olimpismo, 45–6; 133–49. 96. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rico at the 2007 Pan American Games. 97. See Santana, El Juguete Sagrado. 98. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIBA_World Olympic Qualifying Tournament. 99. Opened in 1933, the Casa de España, claimed to be a 'replica of a Spanish Cortijo or country estate in Andalucía, had been designed by Pedro A. De Castro. 100. Puerto Rico Reconstruction Association, Puerto Rico: A Guide, 118; 215. 101. Ibid., 214. 102. Wagenheim, Puerto Rico: A Profile, 225; passim. 103. Conn et al., Guarding the United States, 329–31. 104. Park, '"Forget About That Pile of Papers". 105. See for example Morris, Puerto Rico; Fernandez, The Disenchanted Island; Hernández Sánchez, Puerto Rico, La Chilla del Tío Sam. 106. For example,'Empezo Justa la Liga Militar de Softball', El Mundo, 28 June 1949; 'Continua Esta Noche Torneo Voleo Baymón', El Mundo, 30 June 1949; 'Central High Celebra Hoy 'Field Day', El Mundo, 8 April 1949. 107. 'Juego Béisbal Feminino el 14 en San Sabastián', El Mundo, 13 Jan. 1950. 108. 'Hay Juego Internacional de Fútbol esta Noche Aquí', El Mundo, 4 Jan. 1950. 109. 'Total 84 Jugadores de Volibol Lucharán Puesto para Selección', El Mundo, 16 Jan. 1950. 110. Carr, Puerto Rico: A Colonial Experiment, xii. 111. Ibid. 112. Fernandez, The Disenchanted Island; Sánchez, Puerto Rico, La Chilla del Tío Sam.