Transurban interconnectivities: an essay on the interpretation of the revolutions of 1848
2012; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 19; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/13507486.2012.662945
ISSN1469-8293
Autores Tópico(s)Scottish History and National Identity
ResumoAbstract This essay discusses the interpretation of the revolutionary situations of 1848 in light of recent debates on interconnectivity in history. The concept of transurban interconnectivities is proposed as the most precise concept to capture the nature of interconnectivity in 1848. It is argued that political models circulating on a European scale at the time provided the 'knowledge resources' that were appropriated by urban political activists across Europe. These circulating resources were appropriated by political activists as means of political mobilisation in their particular local urban context. It is argued that circulating political communication accounts for similarities with respect to political agenda, organisational form and political repertoire evident in urban settings across Europe. This argument is supported by a series of examples of local organisation and local appropriations of liberalism, radicalism and nationalism in 1848. In the concluding paragraph, the limitations of the notion of urban–rural interconnectivity are discussed in order to clarify the nature of transurban interconnectivity. Keywords: 1848 revolutionsEuropean historyinterconnectivitytransurbanurban political movementscontentious politicspolitical communicationvoluntary associationsliberalismradicalismnationalism Notes 1. CitationSperber, The European Revolutions 1848–1851, 239ff. CitationHaupt and Langewiesche, 'The European Revolution of 1848,' 5; CitationMergel und Jansen, 'Von "der Revolution" zu "den Revolutionen",' 8f; CitationKoselleck, 'How European was the Revolution of 1848/49?,' 209ff; CitationKaelble, '1848: Viele nationale Revolutionen oder eine europäische Revolution?,' 260ff; CitationBreuilly, '1848: Connected or Comparable Revolutions?,' 31ff. 2. These knowledge resources were also circulating outside Europe. See CitationThompson, The European Revolutions of 1848 and the Americas. 3. CitationWimmer and Glick Schiller, 'Methodological Nationalism and Beyond,' 302ff. 4. CitationHeld et al. Global Transformations, 17; CitationConrad and Osterhhammel, 'Einleitung,' 11ff; CitationClavin, 'Defining Transnationalism,' 421ff; CitationCanaday, 'Thinking Sex in the Transnational Turn: An Introduction,' 1252; CitationBayly, The Birth of the Modern World, 1780–1914, 3, 10f (Bayly does not use the term transnational but speaks, for example, on page 41 about internationalisation). 5. Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, 1780–1914, 1, 12; CitationSaunier, 'Introduction. Global City, Take 2: A View from Urban History,' 9f. 6. CitationGreenblatt, Shakespearean Negotiations, 6. 7. CitationKhagram and Levitt, 'Constructing Transnational Studies,' 5. 8. CitationElliot, 'A Europe of Composite Monarchies,' 48f; CitationHobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1789; CitationMalmborg and Stråth, 'Introduction: The National Meanings of Europe,' 3; CitationWeitz, 'From the Vienna to the Paris System,' American Historical Review, 1313ff. In a global perspective Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, 1780–1914, 234ff. 9. CitationSperber, Rhineland Radicals, 3. 10. CitationMettele, 'Burgher Cities on the Road to Civil Society,' 43ff; CitationLevinger, Enlightened Nationalism, 100; CitationFrandsen, Opdagelsen af Jylland, 44ff. 11. CitationWeber, Peasants into Frenchmen. 12. CitationLeersen, National Thought in Europe, 19, 169. 13. CitationThiesse, 'National Identities. A Transnational Paradigm,' 122. 14. CitationSmith, Transnational Urbanism, 2ff, 127ff, 184ff. 15. CitationTaylor, World City Network, 1f, 19f, 186ff. 16. CitationRingrose, 'Capital Cities, Urbanization, and Modernization in Early Modern Europe,' 155f. 17. CitationChurch, Europe in 1830. 18. CitationNamier, The Revolution of the Intellectuals, 4. 19. CitationParker, 'Introduction: Approaches to Revolution,' 12; CitationSperber, Revolutionary Europe 1780–1850, 392; CitationBerger and Sporer, 'Economic Crisis and the European Revolutions of 1848,' 293ff. 20. CitationQuinault, '1848 and Parliamentary Reform,' 831ff; CitationHummel, 'Political Quiet Zones,' 404ff; CitationStuurman, '1848: Revolutionary Reform in the Nederlands,' 445ff; CitationBjørn, 1848. Borgerkrig og revolution; CitationVammen, 'Casino 48,' 253ff. 21. CitationNeufeld, 'German Artisans and Political Repression,' 492. Werner, 'Travelling Journeymen in Metternichian South Germany,' 216f; CitationOrton, The Prague Slav Congress of 1848, 1. 22. CitationSarti, 'Giuseppe Mazzini and Young Europe,' 290f. 23. CitationLaski, 'Introduction to the Communist Manifesto,' 56f; CitationCunliffe, 'The Communist League and the "Dissolution Question,"' D1045ff. 24. CitationAnderson, European Universities from the Enlightenment to 1914, 66; Citationvom Bruch, 'Die Universitäten in der Revolution von 1848/49,' 141ff; Orton, The Prague Slav Congress of 1848, 1ff, 13. 25. CitationHoffmann, Civil Society, 5ff, 24ff; Mettele, 'Burgher Cities on the Road to Civil Society,' 45ff; Sperber, Rhineland Radicals, 92ff; CitationJørgensen, 'Københavnske Foreninger 1820 til 1848,' 25ff. The most important political club in Prague before 1848 was called Repeal out of sympathy for the Irish movement to regain constitutional independence from Great Britain. CitationPech, The Czech Revolution of 1848, 45. 26. CitationKaukiainen, 'Shrinking World: Improvements in the Speed of Information Transmission, c. 1820–1870,' 1ff; CitationBarker and Burrows, 'Introduction,' 6f, 15ff; CitationGoldstein, 'Introduction,' 17; CitationLenman, 'Germany,' 51; CitationBriggs and Burke: A Social History of the Media, 61, 85f. Also CitationRennstich, 'Three Steps in Globalization,' 203ff, who underlines that global interconnectedness is related to technological capabilities, especially technologies of communication. 27. CitationJørgensen, Trykkefrihedsspørgsmålet I Danmark 1799–1848; Goldstein, 'Introduction,' 9ff; Lenman, 'Germany,' 35, 41ff; CitationHöbelt, 'The Austrian Empire,' 218f; CitationRuud, 'Russia,' 243; CitationGoldstein, 'France,' 131, 141ff; CitationDavies, 'Italy,' 101f; CitationGoldstein, 'The Persecution and Jailing of Political Caricaturists in Nineteenth-century Europe (1815–1914),' 21f; CitationCoupe, 'The German Cartoon and the Revolution of 1848,' 137f. 28. CitationHolstein, The Revolutionary Power of the Press, 6ff; CitationPürschel, 'Zeitungskommunikation unter Gelockerter Zenzur. Die Zeitung als Organ der Öffentlische Meinung (1842),' 244ff, 262f; Frandsen, Opdagelsen af Jylland, 44ff; Davies, 'Italy,' 81f, 101; CitationRath, The Viennese Revolution of 1848, 10f; CitationSked, The Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire 1815–1918, 51f; Sperber, Rhineland Radicals, 122ff; Pech, The Czech Revolution of 1848, 42f. 29. Greenblatt, Shakespearean Negotiations, 5ff; CitationMøller Jørgensen, New Historicism - introduktion og diskussion, 24ff. 30. CitationMcNeill, 'Diffusion in History,' 75ff; CitationVelde, 'Political Transfer: An Introduction,' 212ff; CitationManela, The Wilsonian Moment, 62, 97, 220; CitationWeyland, 'The Diffusion of Revolution.' 31. CitationMoretti, Atlas of the European Novel 1800–1900, 193. 32. Moretti, Atlas of the European Novel 1800–1900, 174 33. Quotation from CitationHanna Kobylinski, Die Französische Revolution als Problem in Deutschland 1840 bis 1848, 7. 34. CitationKramer, Threshold of a New World, 12ff., 35, 232; CitationGötz v. Olenhusen, 'Einleitung,' 7; CitationMollenhauer, 'Nur eine Imitation? 1848/49 in Frankreich,' 19ff; CitationKroll, 'Das "Jacobinische Italien". Demokraten und Republikaner in der Revolution von 1848/49,' 39ff; CitationSperber, 'Germania mit Phrygiermütze. Zur politischen Symbolik der Revolution von 1848/49 in den Rheinland,' 63ff; CitationGötz v. Olenhusen, '1848/49 in Baden,' 81ff; CitationKreutz, 'Das Bild der Pariser Februarrevolution in Deutschland,' 249 underlines the amalgam of 'Frankophilie und Frankophobie' in German reactions to the news of revolution in France; CitationSeddon, The Petrashevtsy, 196. Also CitationDeak , The Lawful Revolution, 176, 222; CitationDeme, 'Echoes of the French Revolution in 1848 Hungary,' 104; CitationKalla, 'An der Spitze der Märzjugens,' 97; Haupt and Langewiesche, 'The European Revolution of 1848,' 1f. 35. CitationRobertson, 'Students on the Barricades: Germany and Austria, 1848,' 374ff. 36. Sperber, Revolutionary Europe, 274f. 37. CitationHachtmann, 'Die Sozialen Unterschichten in der großstädtischen Revolution von 1848. Berlin, Wien und Paris im Vergleich,' 128; CitationSiemann, Die Deutsche Revolution von 1848/49, 49ff; Hummel, 'Political Quiet Zones,' 401. Also CitationBeissinger, 'Nationalism and the Collapse of Soviet Communism,' 334; CitationHawgood, '1848 in Central Europe: An Essay in Historical Synchronisation.' 38. Parker, 'Introduction: Approaches to revolution,' 12; Sperber, Revolutionary Europe 1780–1850, 392; Berger and Spoerer, "Economic Crisis and the European Revolutions of 1848," 293ff. 39. Cf. Smith, Transnational Urbanism, 240. 40. CitationStedman Jones, Languages of Class, 8, 20ff, cap. 3; CitationStedman Jones, 'Anglo-Marxism, Neo-Marxism and the Discursive Approach to History,' 172ff; CitationMcAdam, Tarrow and Tilly, Dynamics of Contention, 43ff; CitationHarrison, 'The Bourgeois after the Bourgeois Revolution: Recent Approaches to the Middle Class in European Cities,' 384ff. 41. For the central role of the Viennese students see Rath, The Viennese Revolution of 1848, 46ff, 189f, 207ff, 309f, 325f. According to the most thorough analysis of the role of the universities in 1848, Heide Thielbeer's analysis of 16 German universities and the activities of university professors and students, universities as cooperation were only involved in two cases. In 30 instances, significant numbers of professors and students were involved in the organisation of political mass meetings, petitions and deputations. Professors from Göttingen, Leipzig and Jena were involved in March ministries, and the predominant role of professors in the Paulskirche Parliament in Frankfurt underlines the liberal sympathies of the professorship in general even though it varied from university to university and did not include all professors at any university. CitationThielbeer, Universität und Politik in der Deutschen Revolution von 1848, 25ff. 42. Conservatives aiming at the preservation of the existing order were also using associations as a basis for mobilisation in 1848. 43. CitationMannová, 'Das Vereinswesen in Ungarn und die Revolution 1848/49,' 57ff; CitationNolte, 'Voluntary Associations and Nation-Building in Nineteenth Century Prague,' 82ff; CitationVogel, 'Unsere Zeit is die Zeit der Association,' 47; CitationHachtmann, Berlin 1848, 27f, 272ff. The vital role of voluntary associations in German nation building has been emphasised by CitationDann, Vereinsbuilding und Nationsbuildung; CitationHachtmann, 'The European Capital Cities in the Revolution of 1848,' 356f; CitationNeemann, 'Kontinuität und Brüche aus einzelstaatlicher Perspektive. Politische Milieu in Sachsen 1848 bis 1850,' 176f, 185f; Sperber, Rhineland Radicals, 192ff. 44. CitationLangewiesche, 'Kommunikationsraum Europa,' 27; CitationRaáb, 'Den ungarske revolution 1848–49 og den danske opinion,' 126ff; CitationKosáry, The Press during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848–1849, 77. 45. Citation from CitationKoch, 'Power and Impotence of the Press in 1848,' 598. Also Hachtmann, Berlin 1848, 37ff and the illuminating exposition in Rath, The Viennese Revolution of 1848, 90ff, 154ff, 223ff. 46. Sperber, The European Revolutions, 151f; Kosáry, The Press during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848–1849, 36, quotation p. 245; Deak, The Lawful Revolution, 29ff. 47. CitationSiemann, 'Revolution und Kommunikation,' 304f; Siemann, Die Deutsche Revolution von 1848/49, 116ff; Holstein, The Revolutionary Power of the Press. James Harris uses the terms 'publication elite' and 'communication elite'. More than 50% of political writing was done by lawyers, journalists, poets and professors while 1% was done by peasants and workers. This did not mean that all politicians were writers, though. CitationHarris, The Authorship of Political Tracts in Post 1848 Germany, 429ff. 48. Two vivid and fundamentally different accounts of the crowd experience can be found in Bakunin's ecstatic account of his loss of individuality in the crowd and Flaubert's satirical and rather disgusted account of the same phenomenon viewed from the outside in his semi-autobiographical Education of the Senses from 1869. CitationGemie, Revolutions and Revolutionaries: Histories, Concepts, and Myths, 129f; CitationFlaubert, Følelsernes Opdragelse, 301ff. 49. Petitions were, of course, a traditional way to forward requests to the authorities. But in 1848 and 1849 petitions boomed both with respect to numbers and number of subscribers, political affiliation, and political, national and social requests made. The number of subscribers varied enormously from a few hundred to several thousand secured from mass meetings or organised countrywide petition campaigns. The Habsburg Landtag received one petition with 40,000 subscribers collected in 722 cities; another had 12,000 subscribers collected in 298 cities, both at the absolute high end of the scale. The Frankfurt Parliament received a total of 17,000 petitions and Berlin received 13,451 petitions. With respect to Frankfurt about 30% concerned problems related to society and social issues with commerce as the largest, 28% concerned the relationship between church and state, 20% concerned German national unity, and 18% concerned civil rights. In Württemberg regional issues were most important, while the Czechs and Croats petitioned several times for protection to the Landtag in Vienna. Everywhere and on every thinkable level petitioning was used to spread political messages effectively. Siemann, Die Deutsche Revolution von 1848/49, 181f; CitationLipp, 'Aktivismus und politische Abstinenz,' 106; CitationLipp and Krempel, 'Petitions and the Social Context of Political Mobilization in the Revolution of 1848/49,' 151ff; Neemann, 'Kontinuität und Brüche aus einzelstaatlicher Perspektive,' 176. 50. Sperber, The European Revolutions 1848–1851, 54; Sperber, Revolutionary Europe 1780–1850, 291ff; CitationKahan, Liberalism in Nineteenth-Century Europe: The Political Culture of Limited Suffrage, 11, 67ff; CitationPombeni, 'Political Models and Political Transfer in the Shaping of Europe,' passim. 51. Kahan, Liberalism in Nineteenth-Century Europe, 2f, 5ff, 28f; CitationLangewiesche, 'Revolution in Germany,' 137; Sperber, The European Revolutions, 64ff; Rath, The Viennese Revolution of 1848, 19ff, 71f, 88, 242f; CitationPopkin, 'Worlds Turned Upside Down: Bourgeois Experience in the 19th-Century Revolutions,' 821f, 831. With respect to anxieties for the revolutionary mass, see also CitationSumpter, 'The Cheap Press and the 'Reading Crowd.' Visualizing mass culture and modernity, 1838–1910,' 235ff. 52. Siemann, Die Deutsche Revolution, 106. 53. CitationTraugott, 'The Crowd in the French Revolution of February, 1848,' 644, 651; CitationTraugott, 'Capital Cities and Revolution,' 151; Siemann, Die Deutsche Revolution von 1848/49, 69; Pech, The Czech Revolution, 310f, 347; CitationBarry, 'Community, Tradition and Memory,' 261; Langewiesche, 'Revolution in Germany,' 136f; Gemie, 'Revolutions and Revolutionaries: Histories, Concepts, and Myths,' 129f. 54. CitationDeme, 'The Society for Equality in the Hungarian Revolution of 1848,' 71ff; Deak, The Lawful Revolution, 176, 220, 272; Sperber, The European Revolutions of 1848–49, 258f; CitationBreuilly, 'The Revolutions of 1848,' 117f; CitationNeamu and Bolovan, The Revolution in 1848–1849 in Transylvania, 3; CitationLivesey, 'Speaking the Nation: Radical Republicans and the Failure of Political Communication in 1848,' 464ff. 55. Vienna, where 160 barricades were erected in May 1848, Berlin, Milan – with an amazing total of 1651 barricades – Napoli, Budapest, Bucharest, Frankfurt, Prague and Dresden witnessed barricades for the first time in 1848, which underlines not just the range and dissemination of revolutions in 1848, but also the extent of transurban interconnectivity. Traugott, 'The Crowd in the French Revolution of February, 1848,' 638ff; CitationTraugott, 'Barricades as Repertoire: Continuities and Discontinuities in the History of French Contention,' 311ff; Traugott, 'Capital Cities and Revolution,' 148; Hachtmann, Berlin 1848, 173ff; CitationHarsin, Barricades, 252; CitationBos, 'Building Barricades: the Political Transfer of a Contentious Roadblock,' 346f. 56. Traugott, 'Barricades as Repertoire,' 316. 57. Katzenmusik or charivari was a common and popular protest form of the 'little people' in cities such as Paris, Milan and the cities of Southern Germany, and it was widely used in 1848, modernised with political content. But as it was the case with the barricade, charivari also made its way to new places. For contemporaries with insight into the street scene in Berlin, charivari was a freshly imported novelty in Berlin 1848. CitationGalius, Straße und Brot, 142ff, 391ff; Siemann: Die Deutsche Revolution, 179f. 58. Langewiesche, 'Kommunikationsraum Europa,' 29; Harsin, Barricades, 125, 271f; CitationKörner, 'Ideas and Memories of 1848 in France,' 93; Galius, Straße und Brot, 496; CitationKoralka, 'Revolutions in the Habsburg Monarchy,' 162. 59. CitationWick, Defining Germany, 205ff, quotation p. 206. 60. Sperber, Rhineland Radicals, 470. 61. Rath, The Viennese Revolution of 1848, 133ff. 62. CitationMüller, Deutscher Bund und Deutsche Nation 1848–1866, 41ff. 63. Deak, The Lawful Revolution, 45ff. 64. Orton, The Prague Slav Congress of 1848, 16. 65. CitationPalacký, 'Letter sent By Frantíšek Palacký to Frankfurt,' 306; 'Manifesto of the first Slavonic Congress to the Nations of Europe,' Citation309ff; Orton, The Prague Slav Congress of 1848, 4, 74, 96; Namier, Revolution of the Intellectuals, 114f. 66. Cf. Leersen, National Thought in Europe, 222. 67. Koralka, 'Revolutions in the Habsburg Monarchy,' 158; CitationHöpken, 'The Agrarian Question in Southeastern Europa,' 464; CitationOrr, 'East Prussia and the Revolution of 1848,' 316ff; Siemann, Die Deutsche Revolution von 1848/49, 184f; Langewiesche, 'Revolution in Germany,' 135f; Breuilly, 'The Revolutions of 1848,' 114f, 122; Neamu and Bolovan, The Revolution in 1848–1849 in Transylvania, 4; Langewiesche, 'Revolution in Germany,' 135f. 68. Höpken, 'The Agrarian Question in Southeastern Europa,' 444f, quotation, 444. 69. CitationBrophy, Popular Culture and the Public Sphere in the Rhineland, 1800–1850; Langewiesche, 'Revolution in Germany,' 135. 70. CitationGinsborg, 'Peasants and Revolutionaries in Venice and the Veneto, 1848,' 507ff. 71. CitationMagraw, 'Pierre Joigneaux and Socialist Propaganda in the French Countryside, 1849–1851,' 602ff; CitationMargadant, French Peasants in Revolt, xviiff, 104ff, 138f, 336ff. 72. CitationSoldani, 'Approaching Europe in the Name of the Nation: The Italian Revolution, 1846–1849,' 66; CitationRies, 'Bauern und ländliche Unterschicten,' 268; Sperber, Rhineland Radicals, 155ff, 449ff; CitationWettengel, 'Party Formation in Germany. Political Associations in the Revolution of 1848,' 544. 73. Höpken, 'The Agrarian Question in Southeastern Europa,' 464. Also Deak, The Lawful Revolution, 118. 74. CitationBjørn, Frygten fra 1848; CitationSchildt, 'Landbevölkerung und Revolution,' 299f; Wettengel, 'Party Formation in Germany. Political Associations in the Revolution of 1848,' 544ff; Galius, Straße und Brot, 439ff; Neamu and Bolovan, The Revolution in 1848–1849 in Transylvania, 61ff. 75. CitationBradley, 'Subject into Citizens,' 1105; Hoffmann, Civil Society, 46f. 76. Taylor, World City Network, 15. 77. CitationLees and Less, Cities and the Making of Modern Europe, 1750–1914, 253f; CitationLaidlaw, Colonial Connections 1815–1845, 14ff; CitationKing, Urbanism, Colonialism, and the World Economy, 2, 149. 78. Lees and Less, Cities and the Making of Modern Europe, 1750–1914 quotation, 3 and 70ff. 79. Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, 199ff; CitationKaiser, 'Transnational Mobilization and Cultural Representation,' 403ff; CitationGeyer and Paulmann, 'Introduction: The Mechanics of Internationalism,' 9; Saunier, 'Introduction. Clobal City, Take 2: A View from Urban History.'
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