Building Bridges across the Atlantic: the European Union Visitors Program . A Case Study for Public Diplomacy and the Transatlantic Relationship in the 1970s
2013; Routledge; Volume: 35; Issue: 5 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/07075332.2013.820770
ISSN1949-6540
Autores Tópico(s)International Relations and Foreign Policy
ResumoAbstractThis article addresses the core question of the complex interplay between Atlantic-alliance politics and European integration in the 1970s, a turning point in the European-US relationship. The analysis focuses on the European Community Visitors Program: the first European Community (EC) professional exchange programme seeking to foster mutual understanding between the Community and the United States, which is an intriguing case study in the history of transatlantic relations from a public-diplomacy standpoint. Its relevance is indeed twofold. From an intra-European perspective, it has contributed to laying the foundations for an identity discourse, upon which the narrative of a Euro-exceptionalism has been constructed from the 1970s onwards. Furthermore, as an exchange programme fostering connections among elites abroad, it has enhanced the EC's visibility outside its borders and thus promoted its recognition worldwide. At a systemic level, the ECVP - modelled after the most famous US public-diplomacy programmes - has served as a transatlantic bridge-builder and a prime tool for facilitating alliance management during the cold war, particularly in the troubled 1970s.Keywords: European integrationtransatlantic relations1970s crisis Notes1. W. J. Fulbright, quoted in S. P. Tillman, The Price of Empire (New York, 1989), 17. On the Fulbright Program and its relevance see R. Arndt and D. Lee Rubin, The Fulbright Difference, 1948–1992 (New Brunswick, 1993); R. Arndt, The First Resort of Kings. American Cultural Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century (Washington, DC, 2005); L. R. Sussman, The Culture of Freedom (Boston, 1992); F. A. Young, ‘Educational Exchanges and the National Interest’, ACLS Newsletter, xx, no. 2 (1969), 17; R. H. Vogel, ‘The Making of the Fulbright Program’, Annali of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, cdxci, 1987.2. W. Schuijt, Intervention orale de M. Schuijt, Rapporteur, Plenary Debate, 3 July 1972. [Luxembourg,] C[entre] Ar[chivistique et] Doc[umentaire du Parlement Européen (Historical Archives of the European Parliament)]3. Ibid.4. The Hague Summit of 1969 launched an ambitious triptych aimed at ‘widening, deepening and completing’ the European Community; see ‘Statement by Georges Pompidou’, Bulletin of the European Communities, Feb. 1970, n. 2.5. G. Scott-Smith, ‘Mending the “Unhinged Alliance” in the 1970s, Transatlantic Relations, Public Diplomacy, and the Origins of the European Union Visitors Programme’, Diplomacy & Statecraft, xvi (2005), 749–78. In 1994, EC official T. Junker also published an essay on the ECVP offering a first analytical description of the program, see T. Junker, ‘The European Community Visitors Programme (ECVP). A Little Known Instrument of International Communication’, La revue du Marché commun et de l’Union européenne, April (1994).6. See among others C. Maier, ‘Marking Time: The Historiography of American Foreign Relations’ in M. Kammen (ed), The Past Before Us: Contemporary Historical Writing in the United States (Ithaca, 1980); H. Laville and H. Wilford (eds), The US Government, Citizen Groups, and the Cold War: The State-Private Network (London, 2006); V. Berghahn, America and the Intellectual Cold Wars in Europe (Princeton, 2001); P. Kramer, ‘Power and Connection: Imperial Histories of the United States in the World’, American Historical Review, cxvi, no. 5 (2011), 1348–91; G. Lundestad (ed), No End to Atlantic Alliance. The United States and Western Europe: Past, Present and Future (Houndmills, 1998), 221–42.7. The literature on the subject is abundant. See, among others, G. Bossuat and N. Vaicbourdt (eds), Etats-Unis, Europe et Union Européene. Histoire et avenir d’un partenariat difficile (1945–1999) (Brussels, 2001); W. Bundy, A Tangled Web: The Making of Foreign Policy in the Nixon Presidency (New York, 1998); E. Conze, Die gaullistische Herausforderung: die deutsch-französische Beziehungen in der amerikanischen Europapolitik, 1958–1963 (Munich, 1995); G. Lundestad's seminal study ‘Empire’ by Integration: The United States and European Integration, 1945–1997 (New York, 1998). By the same author, The United States and Western Europe Since 1945: From ‘Empire’ by Invitation to Transatlantic Drift (Oxford, 2003); G. Lundestad (ed), Just Another Major Crisis? The United States and Europe since 2000 (Oxford, 2008); A. Milward et al., The Frontier of National Sovereignty: History and Theory 1945–1992 (London, 1993); M. Del Pero and F. Romero (eds), Le crisi transatlantiche. Continuità e Trasformazioni (Roma, 2007).8. On the origins and development of the Atlantic Community, see A. Games, ‘Atlantic History: Definitions, Challenger and Opportunities’, American Historical Review, cxi (2006), 741–57; M. Mariano (ed), Defining the Atlantic Community. Culture, Intellectuals, and Policies in the Mid-Twentieth Century (New York, 2010). On the crisis of the Atlantic Community, see J. Anderson, J. Ikenberry, and T. Risse (eds), The End of the West? Crisis and Change in the Transatlantic Order (New York, 2008).9. See C. Maier, ‘Alliance and Autonomy: European identity and US Foreign Policy Objectives in the Truman Years’ in M. C. Lacey (ed), The Truman Presidency, (New York, 1989), 274.10. C. Maier pioneered the concept in his In Search of Stability: Explorations in Historical Political Economy (New York, 1987), 148. He further expanded it in C. Maier (ed), The Cold War in Europe: Era of a Divided Continent (Princeton, 1996).11. M. Mastanduno, ‘System Maker and Privilege Taker: The United States and the International Political Economy’, World Politics, lxi, no. 1 (2009), 121–54.12. In G. Lundestad, The United States and Western Europe Since 1945. The author first introduced the concept in G. Lundestad, ‘Empire by Invitation’, Journal of Peace Research, xxiii (1986), 263–77.13. See among others B. J. Eichengreen, Global Imbalances and The Lesson of Bretton Woods (Cambridge, 2007).14. See R. L. Garthoff, Détente and Confrontation. American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan (Washington, 1985); W. Loth and G.-H. Soutou (eds), The Making of Détente. Eastern and Western Europe in the Cold War, 1965–1975 (Routledge, 2008).15. M. Schulz and T. A. Schwartz (eds), The Strained Alliance. U.S.-European Relations From Nixon to Carter (Cambridge, 2010).16. J. Van der Harst (ed), Journal of European Integration, ii (2003); P. Chassaigne, Les années 1970. Fin d’un monde et origine de nostre modernité (Paris, 2008).17. It refers to leadership changes in France, FRG, and Britain which constituted the single most important factor enabling the emergence and consolidation of the European Political Cooperation, see D. Möckli, European Foreign Policy during the Cold War: Heath, Brandt, Pompidou and the Dream of Political Unity (London, 2009).18. See A. Romano, From Détente in Europe to European Détente. How the West shaped the Helsinki CSCE (Brussels, 2009).19. Joint Statement by the EEC Governments, 6 Nov. 1973. www.cvce.eu/obj/Joint_statement_by_the_Governments_of_the_EEC_6_November_1973-en-a08b36bc-6d29-475c-aadb-0f71c59dbc3e.html [Accessed 19 March 2012].20. Statement by Willy Brandt at the Conference of Heads of States or Government of the Member States, Paris, 19 Dec. 1972, Archives of the Council of the European Union, CM2/1972 103 (CM refers to the Council of the Ministers),21. Ibid.; ‘C’est justement ce dialogue régulier avoce nos partenaires dans le monde qui contribuera - c’est là ma convinction - à affirmer la personalitè, l’identitè de la Communautè’ [It is this regular dialogue with our partners - this is my belief - that will help affirm the EC personality and identity]; see also the Statement by M. G. Eyskens, CM2/1972 101.22. ‘Declaration on European Identity’ in Bulletin of the European Communities, no. 12, (Dec. 1973), 118–22. On identity and alterity, see the seminal work of E. Lévinas, Alterity and Transcendence (New York, 1970); R. Corbey and J. T. Leerseen, Alterity, Identity, Image: Selves and Others in Society and Scholarship (Amsterdam, 1991). On European identity, see F. Cerutti and E. Rudolph (eds), A Soul for Europe, vol. 1, On the Political and Cultural Identity of the Europeans. A Reader (Leuven, 2001); S. Lucarelli and I. Manners (eds), Values and Principles in European Foreign Policy (London, 2006). For a contemporary reflection, K. Kumar, ‘The Question of European Identity: Europe in the American Mirror’, European Journal of Social Theory, xi (2008), 87–105.23. J. R. Schaetzel, ‘America and Europe: Dimensions of the American Problem’, part II, Confidential, 25 Aug. 1969, Abilene, Kansas, Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, J. R. Schaetzel Papers (hereinafter JRS-DDEPL), box. no. 4.24. [Bruxelles,] A[rchive of the] E[uropean] C[ommission,] Reports of EC Commission's debates, 3/1978 931; 3/1978 1068; 13/1993 35; 3/1978 928.25. Consider the analysis offered by JRS in ‘The Continuity and Change of America's Foreign policy toward Europe’, in JRS-DDEPL box, no. 5. See also J. R. Schaetzel, The Unhinged Alliance. America and the European Community (New York, 1975). See M. Frankel, Politique étrangère: M. Nixon a les choses bien en main, ‘New York Times’, 23 Jan. 1973, [Florence], H[istorical] A[rchives of the] E[uropean] C[ommunities], FMM 23. On the decline of the Department of State see JRS, ‘The Eclipse of the State Department’, 1971, in JRS-DDEPL, box. no. 1; a thorough analysis of the limits of the State Department and of the Dulles regime is offered in ‘The Organization Man and the Department of State’, 26 July 1960, JRS-DDEPL, box. no. 4. See also ‘Congress and Foreign Affairs. Annotated Outline’, papers 1981, box. no. 5.26. CARDOC, DE 19720703-01, on this issue, the degree of consensus among the members of the Parliament was strikingly high.27. See A Growing Bond: The European Parliament and the Congress, ‘Report on the first official visit to Congress by a Delegation of the European Parliament’, May 1972, Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, United States Congress, Sept. 1972.28. Remarks by Wilhelmus Schuijt, leader of a delegation of visiting members of the European Parliament at a Plenary meeting with members of the United States Congress in Washington, DC, on 31 May 1972, http://aei.pitt.edu/12979/ [Accessed 19 March 2012].29. G. Vanhaeverbeke, www.heui.eu/HAEU/OralHistory/bin/CreaInt.asp?rc=INT698 [Accessed 19 March 2012]. See also, J. R. Schaetzel ‘America and Europe: Dimensions of the American Problem’, part I, Confidential, 25 Aug. 1969, in JRS-DDEPL, box. no. 4; confidential notes ‘European Community Association Arrangement’ and ‘The enlargement of the European Communities and Agriculture’, 28 Aug. 1969.30. ‘Deterioration in General American Attitude towards Europe’, JRS-DDEPL, box no. 4; cfr. E. Philippart and P. Winand (eds), Ever-Closer Partnership, Policy-Making in US-EU Relations (Brussels, 2001); G. Scott-Smith, ‘Mending the “Unhinged Alliance”.’31. See the frequent exchanges of view on the topic within the EC Parliament and the Commission. Consider the proceedings CARDOC, PV RELA-19710614, RELA-19711004, RELA-19711025, RELA-1971216, RELA-19711207, RELA-19720107, RELA-19720120, RELA-19720222, RELA-19720627.32. W. Schuijt, Intervention orale.33. Ibid.34. T. Junker, interview with the author, 9 Dec. 2008, Luxembourg.35. T. Junker, ‘The European Community Visitors Programme (ECVP). A Little Known Instrument of International Communication’.36. Launched in 1940, it is the US Department of State's premier professional exchange programme.37. G. Scott-Smith, ‘Mending the “Unhinged Alliance”‘, 16.38. On the US State Department's exchange programmes and, more broadly, on the significance and impact of public-diplomacy programmes, see L. Bu, Making the World like US: Education, Cultural Expansion, and the American Century (New York, 2003); N. Cull, American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy 1945–1989: The United States Information Agency and the Cold War (Cambridge, 2008); W. Dizard, Inventing Public Diplomacy The Story of the US Information Agency (Boulder, 2004); F. A. Ninkovich, U.S. Information Policy and Cultural Diplomacy (New York, 1996); K. A. Osgood and B. C. Etheridge (eds), The United States and Public Diplomacy: New Directions in Cultural and International History (Leiden, 2010); G. Scott-Smith, Networks of Empire. The US State Department's Foreign Leader Program in the Netherlands, France and Britain 1950–1970 (Brussels, 2008); ‘Mapping The Undefinable: Some Thoughts on the Relevance of Exchange Programmes within International Relations Theory’, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, dcxvi, March (2008).39. Peter Haas has formulated the importance of epistemic communities as networks ‘of professionals with recognized expertise and competence in a particular domain and an authoritative claim to policy-relevant knowledge within that domain or issue-area’, so that they represent ‘a concrete collection of individuals who share the same worldview (or episteme)’; on their relevance, see P. Haas, ‘Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination’, International Organization, xlvi, no. 1 (1992), 1–35. On the link between ideas and interests, see V. Depkat, ‘Cultural Approaches to International Relations: A Challenge?’ in J. Gienow-Hecht and F. Schumacher (eds), Culture & International History (New York, 2004), 175–97; R. Keohane and J. Nye, (eds), Transnational Relations and World Politics (Cambridge, MA, 1972); T. Risse-Kappen (ed), Bringing Transnational Relations Back In: Non-State Actors, Domestic Structures and International Institutions (Cambridge, 1995).40. Sussman, Culture of Freedom, 53.41. Established in 1903 under the will of Cecil Rhodes, the Rhodes is the oldest and perhaps the most prestigious international graduate scholarship programme in the world. See T. J. Schaeper and K. Schaeper, Rhodes Scholars, Oxford, and the Creation of an American Elite, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 2010).42. V. De Grazia, Irresistible Empire. America's Advance through 20th-century Europe (Cambridge, 2005), 3.43. C. Maier, ‘Empires have Diffused Public Goods by Cultural Diplomacy and Exchanges …’ in C. Maier, Among Empires, American Ascendancy and Its Predecessors (Cambridge, 2006), 65.44. See S. Hoffmann and C. S. Maier (eds), The Marshall Plan: A Retrospective (Boulder, 1984); M.J. Hogan, The Marshall Plan: America, Britain, and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947–1952 (New York, 1987); M. Mazower, Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (New York, 1998); C. S. Maier, ‘The Politics of Productivity: Foundations of American International Economic Policy after World War Two’ in P. J. Katzenstein (ed), Between Power and Plenty (Madison, 1978), 23–49; G. Scott-Smith, ‘Building a Community around the Pax Americana: The US Government and Exchange Programs in the 1950s’ in H. Laville and H. Wilford (eds), The US Government, Citizen Groups, and the Cold War: The State-Private Network.45. T. Junker, interview.46. The Communist and Allies Group voted in favour of the Schuijt Initiative, for its position cf. statement by MEP Leonardi, in Intervention orale.47. R. Dahrendorf in Intervention orale; for the Commission's position in the formative years, see [Washington, DC,] A[rchives of the] EU D[elegation], History of ECVP. Budget Approval, 1974, and G. Scott-Smith, ‘Mending the Unhinged Alliance’, 13–14.48. US Constitution, Article 1, Section 9, www.usconstitution.net/const.html#A1Sec949. C.S. Mugnozza, Letter to Greenwald, 22 April 1974, AEUD.50. See G. Scott-Smith, ‘Mending the Unhinged Alliance’, 19.51. ‘Trips Restricted’, Washington Post, 17 July 1974, AEUD.52. These included the possible exemption of the ECVP from the rules laid down by the Federal Gifts and Decoration Act as the EC was not a state but a multilateral organisation; see C. Hackett, interview with the author, 6 Nov. 2009. See also Note ‘ECVP Constitutional Problem’, European Community Information Service, 13 March 1975, AEUD.53. Notes, 15 Sept. 1976; 16 Sept. 1976, AEUD.54. History of ECVP's Approval by the US Government for Federal and Congressional Employees, AEUD.55. B. Whiteman, Note ‘Problems with the ECVP and the U.S. Senate’, 27 Aug. 1990, AEUD.56. The first five were David Rossiter (Minority Clerk, Subcommittee on Foreign Operations; Senate Appropriations Committee, Washington DC); John Yochelson (Research Fellow, Center for International Affairs, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA); Charles Maynes (Director of International Organisation Program, Carnegie Endowment for Peace, New York City); George Krumbhaar (Minority Counsel, Joint Economic Committee of Congress, Washington DC); Nicholas Hollis (Vice-President, International Economic Department, National Association of Manufacturers, Washington DC).57. About 4,000 people visit the United States every year under the IVLP, http://exchanges.state.gov/ivlp/ivlp.html.58. On the difficult relationship between W. Schuijt and Legrand-Lane, Head of DG X, see Steering Committee, Lettre à Monsieur le Président Emilio Furio Colombo, 16 March 1978, CARDOC, p. 1; R. Jenkins, Letter to Madame Simone Veil, President of the European Parliament, 17 Dec. 1979, CARDOC, Fond Simone Veil; R. Legrand-Lane, Note relative au programme d’accueil de visiteurs américains dit ‘Programme Schuijt’, 2 Sept. 1975; R. Legrand-Lane, Note à l’attention de Monsieur Scheer, Confidentiel, 3 Jan. 1980.59. The first ECVP grantees selected for their previous acquaintance with the Delegation to provide ‘trial runs’ for the programme.60. C. Hackett, personal papers given to the author, Hackett to Schuijt, 26 Jan. 1977.61. See the contrast between ‘Programme de visites de la Communauté Européenne. Bilan et Perspectives, 14 February, 1974’ and ‘Règlement financier du Programme de visites de la Communauté européenne (5ème rèvision)’, March 1986, BS. Forty-eight thousand ECU were allocated in 1974. Over the years, the budget has not been proportionally increased, but rather reduced. Since 2002, it has constantly dropped below its highest level of 745,000 Eur.62. W. Schuijt, Lettre à Mr. Georges Spénale, Président du Parlement Européen, 28 Aug. 1975, CARDOC.63. P. F. Lazarsfeld, B. Berelson, and H. Gaudet, The People's Choice: how the Voter Makes up his Mind in a Presidential Campaign (New York, 1944).64. T. Junker, interview.65. Donald McHenry, first at the Carnegie Endowment, became Ambassador to the UN and International Affairs Professor at Georgetown; Charles Ferris (1976), Democratic Policy Committee, became Chairman of the Federal Communication Commission three years later; Rufus Yerxa (1984), at the time attorney with the House Ways and Means Committee, became US Special Trade Representative in 1997; Carol Moseley-Braun (1987), at the time auditor for Cook County in Chicago, the first black woman elected to the Senate in 1993 and candidate for the Democratic nomination in 2003–4. If we shift the focus away from the United States to the programme's other partners, there are further examples of success stories, especially in those countries linked to the EU by the Neighborhood Policy.66. F. Duchêne, ‘Europe's Role in World Peace’ in R. Mayne (ed), Europe. Tomorrow: Sixteen Europeans Look Ahead (London, 1972); I. Manners, ‘Normative Power in Europe: A Contradiction in Terms?’, JCMS, xl, no. 2 (2002), 235–58.67. Expansion went as follows: Canada and Latin America in 1977, Australia and New Zealand in 1981, Japan in 1984, EU candidate countries in 1990. As Junker noted, the first was in favour of enlarging the ECVP to those countries that were linked to the Assembly while the Commission was willing to encourage the expansion towards those areas where the Commission had its own Delegations.
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