Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

Victors, Villains and Victims: Capitalizing on Memory in Timor-Leste

2012; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 12; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/17449057.2011.632958

1744-9065

Joanne Wallis,

Island Studies and Pacific Affairs

Abstract In 2006 a security crisis in Timor-Leste caused the collapse of the police force, dismissal of almost half of the army and the internal displacement of 150,000 people. The roots of the crisis lay in a range of societal divisions that became salient owing to the weak nature of Timorese national identity. The government responded to the security crisis by creating schemes to provide cash payments to certain groups. This article considers how these schemes fit into—and potentially exacerbate—societal divisions and emerging competition over the ownership of Timorese national identity. It concludes by arguing that an ethno-symbolist approach to building national identity, combined with generally available social assistance schemes, may offer Timor-Leste the best chance of ameliorating societal division and conflict. Acknowledgements The author wishes to thank for their comments: her PhD supervisor, Prof. James Mayall; participants at the Ethnopolitics specialist panel at the 61st Political Studies Association Annual Conference, London, April 2011; participants at the POLIS PhD Conference, University of Cambridge, June 2011; and the three anonymous referees for their thoughtful engagement with the article. Notes Three hundred and forty-four thousand five hundred and eighty (78.5%) Timorese voters rejected the proposal of special autonomy within Indonesia in favour of independence, while 94,388 (21.5% of voters) supported the proposal. United Nations Security Council, Resolution 1272 on Establishment of the UN Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET), 25 October 1999. Although questions about the conduct of civic education programmes and the Constituent Assembly election call into question whether the election was truly democratic. See Babo Soares Citation(2003b), Carter Center (2004), Goldstone Citation(2004) and Hohe Citation(2002). Seventy-three per cent of Timorese live in rural areas and in 2007 49.9% of adults were illiterate (UNDP, Citation2009; World Bank, 2010). Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste 2002, s. 11 and preamble. There was public debate concerning whether to adopt the flag used by FRETILIN when it declared independence in 1975, or the flag used by FALINTIL (and later the CNRT) during the Indonesian occupation. Although the most popular compromise was to incorporate the two flags, the Constitution instead adopted the FRETILIN flag. Constitution, s. 15. The Repu´blica Democra´tica de Timor Leste (Democratic Republic of East Timor), which echoes the one coined by FRETILIN in 1975. Constitution, s. 1(1). Twenty-eight November 1975, the day that FRETILIN declared independence from Portugal. Constitution, s. 1(2). The national anthem is Patria Patria, which was the FRETILIN anthem. Law on National Symbols, No. 2/2007, 18 January 2007; Constitution, s. 166. Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor FRETILIN Draft, art. 11(1). Confidential interview with a Timorese intellectual, Dili, 12 May 2010. Confidential interview with a member of the Constituent Assembly, Dili, 13 May 2010. Confidential interview with a member of the Constituent Assembly, Canberra, 2 February 2010. Confidential interview with a Timorese intellectual, Dili, 12 May 2010. Constitution, s. 13(1). Constitution, s. 159. Constitution, s. 13(2). Constitution of the Democratic Republic of East Timor FRETILIN Draft, art. 13. Confidential interview with a member of the Constituent Assembly, Dili, 2 February 2010. Confidential interview with an international governance adviser, Dili, 10 May 2010. Confidential interview with an international governance adviser, Dili, 10 May 2010; confidential interview with a Timorese intellectual, Dili, 12 May 2010. Confidential interview with a Timorese intellectual, Dili, 12 May 2010. UNTAET Regulation 2001/10, 13 July 2001. Although this success is qualified (Pigou, Citation2003, Citation2004; JSMP, Citation2004). The last reliable estimate was made in September 2010 (ICG, Citation2011). An ethnic community is a named human population that shares common myths of descent, historical memories, common culture, association with a recognized territory and a sense of solidarity (Smith, Citation1994). Firaku is said to refer to approximately 30% of the population from the districts of Manatuto, Baucau, Viqueque and Lautem. Kaladi is said to refer to approximately 50% of the population from the districts of Aileu, Ainora, Liquica, Manufahi, Ermera, Bobonaro and Covalima. If Oecussi, an enclave located in West Timor, is included, the total increases to 55% of the population. The Congresso Nacional de Reconstrução de Timor-Leste (CNRT), which employed a variant of the former acronym of the umbrella resistance movement (CNRT, Citation2007; Cotton, Citation2007; Leach, Citation2009). UNTAET Regulation 2001/1, On the Establishment of a Defence Force for East Timor, 31 January 2001. Timor-Leste uses the US dollar, and all amounts in this article refer to that currency. UNTAET, Regulation No. 2000/3, On the Establishment of a Public Service Commission. UNTAT, Regulation No. 2001/22, On the Establishment of the East Timor Police Service. The three most prominent groups are the following. First, the Association of Veterans of the Resistance (AVR), founded by Gusmão. Its membership consists of those who participated in CNRT and FALINTIL structures but did not join FRETILIN. It is the largest veterans' organization, with a reported 18,000 members countrywide. Importantly, AVR is the institutional home of the vast majority of CNRT cadres who did not join FRETILIN. Another distinguishing feature of AVR is that the vast majority of its members were not armed combatants for most of the Indonesian occupation, but were part of the clandestine network that provided support to both the external front and FALINTIL. Second, the FALINTIL Veterans Foundation (FVF), which assists FALINTIL veterans and the families of deceased FALINTIL only. Its membership is limited to those who served in FALINTIL between 1979 and 1992. The FVF is directed by 12 ex-FALINTIL commanders of whom the seven leading figures are current FDTL officers. It has close links to the President and opposition parties. Third, the Ex-Combatants Association, which is institutionally linked to FRETILIN and includes many civilian ex-combatants. It was supported by Roge´rio Lobato, the Minister for Internal Administration during the first government, and a number of hard-line disaffected FALINTIL veterans (Conflict, Security and Development Group, Citation2003). The three most prominent groups are the following. First, Sagrada Familia, which opposed the first government on the grounds that it was led by 'outsiders'. At its peak in 2002 it claimed 5,000 members. Second, CPD-RDTL (Council for the Popular Defence of the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste), which rejected UNTAET on the grounds that Timor-Leste had been independent since 1975. At its peak in 2000–2001 it claimed 6,600 members. Third, Colimau 2000, which combined FALINTIL veterans, unemployed and illiterate youths and former militia members. It claimed that dead resistance fighters would return to life and lead the country (McCarthy, Citation2002; Conflict, Security and Development Group, Citation2003; Scambary, Citation2006; Kingsbury, Citation2009). It later expanded to approximately 3,125 members. Decree Law on the Pensions of the Combatants and Martyrs of the National Liberation No. 15/2008, as amended by Decree Law Amending Decree law No. 15/2008 of 4 June No. 25/2008. Statute of the National Liberation Combatants No. 3/2006, as amended by First Amendment to Law No. 3/2006 of 12 April No. 9/2009, arts. 24–25; Decree Law on the Pensions of the Combatants and Martyrs, as amended, art. 8. Statute of the National Liberation Combatants, arts. 4.1(c), 8 and 26.1. Decree Law on the Pensions of the Combatants and Martyrs, as amended, art. 17. Statute of the National Liberation Combatants, as amended, art. 27.1. Statute of the National Liberation Combatants, as amended, art. 29.1. This was made up of 271 recipients of the special subsistence pension, 235 recipients of the special retirement pension, 3,429 recipients of the survival pension and nine recipients of the 'leading figures' pension (MSS, 2010). This was made up of 313 recipients of the special subsistence pension, 236 recipients of the special retirement pension, 8,427 recipients of the survival pension and 13 recipients of the 'leading figures' pension (MSS, 2010). Statute of the National Liberation Combatants, as amended, art. 28.1. Statute of the National Liberation Combatants, as amended, arts. 28.2, 28.3 and 28.4. Statute of the National Liberation Combatants, as amended, art. 27.2; Decree Law on the Pensions of the Combatants and Martyrs, as amended, art. 30; Decree Law on the Regime of Awarding Scholarships to the Children of Combatants and Martyrs of the National Liberation No. 8/2009, art. 2.1. Under this programme the 'aged' are defined as 'age 60 and up', while the 'disabled' are defined as 'a person wearing a mental or physical condition of any origin which implies a total and permanent inability to work'. Decree Law on the Support Allowance for the Aged and Disabled No. 19/2008, ss. 1, 3, 4 and 6. Decree Law on the Support Allowance for the Aged and Disabled, s. 46. Confidential interview with an official from the Ministry of Social Solidarity, Dili, 28 September 2010. Confidential interview with a government official, Dili, 27 September 2010; confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 27 September 2010; confidential interview with a government minister, Dili, 27 September 2010; confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 28 September 2010. Constitution, s. 11. Confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 27 September 2010; confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 30 September 2010; confidential interview with a member of Timorese civil society, Dili, 1 October 2010. Confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 30 September 2010. Statute of the National Liberation Combatants, as amended. Confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 30 September 2010. Confidential interview with an international financial adviser, Dili, 30 September 2010. First Amendment to Law No. 3/2006 of 12 April No. 9/2009, art. 3. Statute of the National Liberation Combatants, as amended, art. 17. Confidential interview with a representative of the Ministry of Social Solidarity, Dili, 27 September 2010; confidential interview with a representative of the Ministry of Social Solidarity, Dili, 30 September 2010. Confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 30 September 2010. Confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 30 September 2010. Confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 30 September 2010; confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 28 September 2010. Confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 30 September 2010; confidential interview with a member of Timorese civil society, Dili, 27 September 2010. Confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 30 September 2010. Confidential interview with a member of Timorese civil society, Dili, 26 September 2010; confidential interview with an international humanitarian adviser, Dili, 27 September 2010; confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 27 September 2010; confidential interview with a member of Timorese civil society, Dili, 27 September 2010. Confidential interview with an international humanitarian worker, Dili, 27 September 2010. Confidential interview with an international adviser to the CAVR, Melbourne, 6 December 2010. Draft law Establishing the Framework of the National Reparations Programme, No. /II, available online at: http://www.laohamutuk.org/Justice/Reparations/Reparations15JunEn.pdf, accessed 13 September 2010. This is in accordance with the recommendations of the CAVR (CAVR, Citation2005). Confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, 28 September 2010; confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 30 September 2010. Confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 30 September 2010. Confidential interview with a member of Timorese civil society, Dili, 26 September 2010; confidential interview with an international humanitarian worker, Dili, 27 September 2010. Confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 27 September 2010. Confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 27 September 2010; confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 28 September 2010. Confidential interview with a member of Timorese civil society, Dili, 1 October 2010. Although the use of local customs in community reconciliation was not without problems, particularly as it may have marginalized women and prioritized reconciliation over justice (Larke Citation2009). Confidential interview with an international academic, Brisbane, 18 January 2010; confidential interview with an international academic, Melbourne, 22 December 2009. Confidential interview with a Timorese intellectual, Dili, 12 May 2010. Confidential interview with a Timorese intellectual, Dili, 12 May 2010; fieldwork observation, Timor-Leste, April–May 2010. Constitution, s. 6(g). Constitution, s. 2(4). Constitution, s. 59(5). Confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 11 May 2010; confidential interview with a government minister, Dili, 27 April 2010; confidential interview with a Timorese intellectual, Dili, 12 May 2010; confidential interview with an international governance advisor, Dili, 23 April 2010. Confidential interview with a Member of Parliament, Dili, 11 May 2010. Confidential interview with a Timorese intellectual, Dili, 12 May 2010. X. Gusmão, speech at his inauguration as President of Timor-Leste, Dili, 19 May 2002 (Gusmão, Citation2005, p. 4). Confidential interview with a Timorese intellectual, Dili, 12 May 2010. Confidential interview with a Timorese intellectual, 12 May 2010; confidential interview with an international governance advisor, Dili, 10 May 2010. Personal communication from A. Pires, Secretary of State for Natural Resources, Dili, 29 April 2010. Confidential interview with a member of Timorese civil society, Dili, 14 May 2010. Confidential interview with a member of Timorese civil society, Dili, 14 May 2010; confidential interview with a Timorese intellectual, Dili, 12 May 2010. Confidential interview with a member of Timorese civil society, Dili, 26 September 2010. Confidential interview with an international humanitarian worker, Dili, 27 September 2010; confidential interview with a member of Timorese civil society, Dili, 26 September 2010.