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A Missing Paradigm? Military Captivity and the Prisoner of War, 1914–18

2008; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 26; Issue: 1-2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/02619280802442589

1744-0521

Heather Jones,

Historical Studies and Socio-cultural Analysis

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes [1] Bartov, Murder in our Midst. [2] See Becker, Oubliés de la grande guerre; Abbal, Soldats oubliés; Hinz, Gefangen im Großen Krieg; Oltmer, Bäuerliche Ökonomie; idem, ‘Zwangsmigration und Zwangsarbeit’. [3] Rachamimov, POWs and the Great War; Nachtigal, Kriegsgefangenschaft an der Ostfront. [4] Speed, Prisoners, Diplomats and the Great War. [5] Rachamimov, ‘The Disruptive Comforts of Drag’, 1–4. [6] Hinz, Gefangen im Großen Krieg, 238; Leidinger and Moritz, ‘Verwaltete Massen’, 54. [7] Nachtigal, Kriegsgefangenschaft an der Ostfront, 13–16. [8] Procacci, Soldati e prigionieri italiani, 168. [9] Service Historique de L'Armée de Terre (SHAT) 16 N 525, GQG Bureau de Personnel – Pertes, Dossier no. 2, Prisonniers de Guerre, États numériques; German Reichstag, Völkerrecht im Weltkrieg, vol. 3, part 1, 715. Service Historique de L'Armée de Terre is hereafter referred to as SHAT. [10] Kramer, Dynamic of Destruction, 63. [11] Ferguson, ‘Prisoner Taking and Prisoner Killing’, 159. [12] The higher estimate of 170,000 is from Nachtigal, Kriegsgefangenschaft an der Ostfront, 16; the lower figure, 167,000 is from Rachamimov, POWs and the Great War, 31. The death rate estimate is from Overmans, ‘“Hunnen” und “Untermenschen”’, 343 and 348. [13] Nachtigal, Kriegsgefangenschaft an der Ostfront, 16. [14] Höpp, Muslime in der Mark, 44. [15] Doegen, Kriegsgefangene Völker, 28–9. [16] Gratien Candace, Rapport fait au nom de la Commission des affaires extérieures (Paris, 1919) no. 5676 Chambre des Deputés, onzième legislature, Session de 1919, Annexe au procès-verbal de la 2e séance du 11 février 1919; War Office, Statistics of the Military Effort, 632–5. Other estimates put the number of French prisoners at 600,000 or higher. [17] One of the rare publications on this topic is Sergeev, ‘Kriegsgefangenschaft aus russischer Sicht’. [18] N.F. Oliver, D.I.D., Minute, 3 September 1914, in The National Archives, Kew, London (TNA), ADM 1/8393/304. The National Archives is hereafter referred to as TNA. [19] Belfield, ‘The Treatment of Prisoners of War’. [20] Frerk, Kriegsgefangen in Nordafrika, 39. [21] Jones, ‘Encountering the “Enemy”’. [22] Jones, ‘The Enemy Disarmed’, 45–6. [23] Interview with Private Charles Brash, in TNA, WO 161/98, no. 536. [24] SHAT, 7 N 1187, Rapports d'évadés ou rapatriés transmis par Gouv. de Boulogne, Adjutant Lucien Debond. [25] Gärtner, ‘Einrichtung und Hygiene der Kriegsgefangenenlager’, 261. [26] Gärtner, ‘Einrichtung und Hygiene der Kriegsgefangenenlager’, 260. [27] Doegen, Kriegsgefangene Völker, 28–9. [28] Gärtner, ‘Einrichtung und Hygiene der Kriegsgefangenenlager’, 261. [29] Leidinger and Moritz, ‘Verwaltete Massen’, 35–6. [30] Nachtigal, ‘Seuchen unter militärischer Aufsicht’; idem, ‘Seuchenbekämpfung’; idem, Kriegsgefangenschaft an der Ostfront, 72. [31] The higher figure for French prisoner deaths in Germany is that given by the former head of the French Service des Prisonniers de Guerre, Georges Cahen-Salvador – see Cahen-Salvador, Les Prisonniers de Guerre, 281, 284 and 291. The lower figure comes from the official German interwar history by Wilhelm Doegen – see Doegen, Kriegsgefangene Völker, 28–9. The figure for German deaths in France comes from German Reichstag, Völkerrecht im Weltkrieg, vol. 3, part 1, 715. See also Weiland and Kern, In Feindeshand, vol. 2. The figure for German deaths in British captivity is from War Office, Statistics of the Military Effort, 329, 352 and 632–35. [32] Höpp, Muslime in der Mark, 50. [33] Hinz, Gefangen im Großen Krieg, 238. [34] Hinz, Gefangen im Großen Krieg, 238 [35] Doegen, Kriegsgefangene Völker, 56–7; Spoerer, ‘The Mortality of Allied Prisoners of War’. [36] Hinz, ‘Kriegsgefangene’, 641–6. [37] Gilbert, The First World War, 248. [38] See the accounts in Long, Other Ranks of Kut; and Neave, Remembering Kut. [39] Kramer, Dynamic of Destruction, 142–3. [40] Kramer, Dynamic of Destruction, 142–3 [41] Kramer, Dynamic of Destruction, 142–3, 67. [42] On the German prisoners of Tsingtau see Krebs, ‘Die etwas andere Kriegsgefangenschaft’, 323–8; and Powell, Splinters of a Nation. On German prisoners in Templemore, see D'Arcy, Remembering the War Dead, 198–203. [43] SHAT, 3 H 260, Rapatriement grands blessés, prisonniers allemands du maroc, 1915-1916. [44] SHAT, 3 H 260, Rapatriement grands blessés, prisonniers allemands du maroc, 1915-1916 [45] Archives du Comité International de la Croix Rouge, (ACICR) 432/II/10/c.37; Comité International de la Croix Rouge, Documents publiés à l'occasion de la Guerre Européenne, 1914-1916, Rapports de M. le Dr A.Vernet et M. Richard de Muralt sur leurs visites aux depôts de prisonniers en Tunisie et de MM. P.,Schazmann et Dr O.-L. Cramer sur leurs visites aux depôts de prisonniers en Algérie en décembre 1915 et janvier 1916 (Geneva, 1916), 57. [46] Leidinger and Moritz, ‘Verwaltete Massen’, 58. As Reinhard Nachtigal has pointed out, ‘research into prisoners of war taken on both sides on the Caucasus front has not yet begun’ – Nachtigal, Kriegsgefangenschaft an der Ostfront, 13. [47] Cf. Reinhard Nachtigal's contribution to this special issue. [48] On the wartime attempt to define this new illness see Vischer, Barbed Wire Disease. [49] MacKenzie, ‘The Ethics of Escape’. [50] On prison camp newspapers see Pöppinghege, Im Lager unbesiegt. On camp theatre see Pörzgen, Theater ohne Frau; and Rachamimov, ‘The Disruptive Comforts of Drag’. [51] Cochet, Soldats sans armes, 11; Cahen-Salvador, Les Prisonniers de Guerre, 17. [52] Brown, The Hague Conventions and Declarations of 1899 and 1907, 110. [53] Brown, The Hague Conventions and Declarations of 1899 and 1907, 110 See also Cahen-Salvador, Les Prisonniers de Guerre, 17–19. [54] Willis, Prologue to Nuremburg, 17–22. [55] d'Anthouard, Les Prisonniers Allemands au Maroc, 1–8. See also Jones, ‘The German Spring Reprisals of 1917’. [56] d'Anthouard, Les Prisonniers Allemands au Maroc, 1–8. See also Jones, ‘The German Spring Reprisals of 1917’ [57] Letter from Comité International de la Croix Rouge (CICR) to Mr le Conseiller Fédéral Hoffmann, 25 May 1917, in ACICR, 445.iv-ix.c.61. [58] Jones, ‘The German Spring Reprisals of 1917’. [59] German Reichstag, Verhandlungen des Reichstages, vol. 309, 2492 (86th session, 2 March 1917). [60] Figures from Oltmer, ‘Unentbehrliche Arbeitskräfte’, 71. [61] Leidinger and Moritz, ‘Verwaltete Massen’, 48. [62] Oltmer, ‘Unentbehrliche Arbeitskräfte’, 70. [63] Oltmer, ‘Unentbehrliche Arbeitskräfte’, 70 [64] Thiel, ‘Menschenbassin Belgien’, 68, n. 60. [65] Jones, ‘The Enemy Disarmed’, 88–96. [66] SHAT, 6 N 110: Journal hebdomadaire de l'inspection générale des prisonniers de guerre, semaine du 11 au 18 mars 1916, 8. [67] Cahen-Salvador, Les Prisonniers de Guerre, 43–4. [68] House of Lords Record Office (HLRO), LG F/7/2/16, cited in Jones, ‘The Enemy Disarmed’, 321. [69] Panayi, ‘Normalität hinter Stacheldraht’, 144; TNA, NATS 1/282, Table showing the distribution of prisoners of war in Great Britain by industry on 12 May 1918. [70] Panayi, ‘Normalität hinter Stacheldraht’, 144; TNA, NATS 1/282, Table showing the distribution of prisoners of war in Great Britain by industry on 12 May 1918 [71] On prisoner treatment in German prisoner of war labour companies see Jones, ‘The Final Logic of Sacrifice?’. On the establishment of prisoner of war labour companies in the German army see idem, ‘The German Spring Reprisals of 1917’. [72] Circular telegram from the Chief of the General Staff, 22 September 1915, in Bundesarchiv-Militärarchiv Freiburg (BA-MA), PH5/II/455, f. 130. [73] TNA, WO 32/5098 1B, Formation of Prisoner of War Companies, No.A.G. b 2006/4, 27 July 1916; SHAT 16 N 2467, D.1, f. 34, 520/DA, no. 2046/DA, 9 June 1916. [74] Circular telegram from the Chief of the General Staff, 22 September 1915 (as note 72 above). Underlining in original. [75] TNA, MUN 4/6527. [76] Rawe, ‘Wir werden sie schon zur Arbeit bringen!’, 79. [77] Herbert, A History of Foreign Labor in Germany, 91. [78] Leidinger and Moritz, ‘Verwaltete Massen’, 56. [79] Leidinger and Moritz, ‘Verwaltete Massen’, 53. [80] Department of Prisoners of War, WO to Sir Douglas Haig, 31 March 1916, in TNA, MUN 4/6527, 121/works/219. On British prisoner of war labour companies see Scott, ‘Captive Labour’. [81] U.F. Wintour to David Lloyd George, 12 February 1916, in HLRO, LG/D/17/6/31; Albert Thomas to David Lloyd George, 1 March 1916, in TNA, MUN 4/6527. [82] Ferguson, The Pity of War, 283; Walter Runciman to Sir Douglas Haig, 23 March 1916, in TNA MUN 4/6527. [83] D.P.W. to C. in C., G.H.Q., 11 August 1916, in TNA, WO 32/5098 5A. [84] Minute no. 2, 2 August 1916., in TNA, WO 32/5098 1A Register no. 0103/8472. [85] Scott, ‘Captive Labour’, 319–31. [86] Scott, ‘Captive Labour’, 328. [87] Scott, ‘Captive Labour’, 319. [88] Cahen-Salvador, Les Prisonniers de Guerre, 126. [89] Cahen-Salvador, Les Prisonniers de Guerre, 55. [90] SHAT, 16 N 2467, D.1, f.36, 848/DA, 15 July 1916. [91] SHAT 16 N 2467, Index to D.A. Correspondance avec le Ministre, 1916, E.M.A. no. 8557.1/11. [92] SHAT, 16 N 2467,D.1, f.34, 520/DA, order no. 2046/DA, 9 June 1916. [93] It should be noted that this was the same size as the British prisoner of war labour company. See SHAT 16 N 2467, f.36, 848/DA, 15 July 1916. [94] SHAT, 16 N 2468, Cie de P.G., D.4, f.16, 26 August 1916. [95] SHAT, 16 N 2467, D.1, f.16, GQG, 19 June 1916. [96] SHAT, 16 N 525, État des Prisonniers se trouvant dans la Zone des Armées le 26 janvier 1917. [97] Jones, ‘The Final Logic of Sacrifice?’. [98] SHAT, 16 N 2468, Compagnies de prisonniers. Dossier 4, no.140, Ordre donné par Groupement ABC de la IIe Armee, copie de la note 2515, SP46, 15 September 1916. [99] SHAT, 16 N 2468, D.5, f.47, 8 January 1917, GQG, Note relative à l'emploi des prisonniers de guerre dans la Zone des Armées. [100] Procacci, Soldati e prigionieri italiani, 171. [101] Nachtigal, Russland und seine österrischisch-ungarischen Kriegsgefangenen, 185. [102] TNA, WO 95/5040, Turkish prisoner of war labour companies. [103] Hull, Absolute Destruction, 325. See also Hinz, ‘Humanität im Krieg?’, 216–36. [104] Rachamimov, POWs and the Great War, 6–7; idem., ‘“Female Generals” and “Siberian Angels”’, 23–46. [105] See, for example, the Bulletin International des sociétés de la Croix-Rouge, 1914–1918, or The British Prisoner of War, published by the Central Prisoners of War Committee of the British Red Cross and the Order of St. John, vol. 1, nos. 1–12 (January to December 1918). [106] Abbal, Soldats oubliés, 88–9. [107] Djurović, L'Agence Centrale de Recherches, 58. [108] All the historiography concurs on the importance of parcels. See, for example, Procacci, Soldati e Prigionieri italiani; Hinz, Gefangen im Großen Krieg; Jones, ‘The Enemy Disarmed’, 316–20. [109] Procacci, Soldati e Prigionieri italiani, 174–5. [110] Rawe, ‘Wir werden sie schon zur Arbeit bringen!’, 105–6. For contemporary evidence of the importance of parcels in German camps, see also the Rapports des Délégués du gouvernement espagnol (Paris, 1918). [111] On Feltham see Württemburgisches Hauptstaatsarchiv-Militärarchiv, Stuttgart, M77/1 1024, Kriegsministerium, Nr 1280/7.18 B 4a Gef. Abschrift, Vorzugslager, 19 September 1918. On the Irish prisoners see Roth, ‘“The German Soldier is not tactful”’; TNA, WO 141/9, 24 R, Copy of statement from Michael O'Connor, Corporal no. 7543, 2nd Battalion, Royal Irish Regiment; Inglis, Roger Casement, 268. [112] Prussian Minister of Interior to Landwirtschaft, IV.c.41247, November 1914, in Geheimes Staatsarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz, I. Abt., Rep. 87, B.16098, Bd. 1, Landwirtschaft. 1914, f. 71. [113] SHAT, 7 N 1993, procès-verbal de la commission interministérielle des prisonniers de guerre – séance du 10 janvier 1916. [114] Kramer, Dynamic of Destruction, 64. [115] Leidinger and Moritz, ‘Verwaltete Massen’, 59–60. [116] For a thought-provoking discussion of race and captivity see Becker, Oubliés de la grande guerre, 317–58. [117] Evans, ‘Capturing Race’, 226–56. [118] For example, in France the artist, Marcel Eugène Louveau-Rouveyre produced a series of sketches of German prisoners at railway stations. These can be seen at the Bibliothèque de Documentation Internationale Contemporaine, Hôtel des Invalides (BDIC, Les Invalides), Ref. Or F3 1311-1320. [119] Struck, Kriegsgefangene; Stiehl, Unsere Feinde; Doegen, Unter fremden Völkern. [120] Led by Wilhelm Doegen, the Phonographic Commission was established to record the different languages, dialects and ethnic music skills of prisoners of war in German camps. Its collection of recordings is still extant and includes an impressive range of Slavic, Yiddish, African and Asian folk music from 1915-18. See Mahrenholz, ‘Zum Lautarchiv und seiner wissenschaftlichen Erschliessung’, 139. [121] Leidinger and Moritz, ‘Verwaltete Massen’, 60. [122] Becker, Oubliés de la grande guerre, 317–58. [123] Auswärtiges Amt, Völkerrechtswidrige Verwendung farbiger Truppen; Michel, ‘“Intoxication ou brutalisation”’. [124] Höpp, Muslime in der Mark, 44. [125] Höpp, Muslime in der Mark, 35. [126] Höpp, Muslime in der Mark, 55. [127] Höpp, Muslime in der Mark, 83–5. [128] SHAT, 7 N 2107, Account by Moursili Ahmed, Matricule 4963 de la 2e Cie du 6ème régiment de tirailleurs algériens. See also To Make Men Traitors: Germany's attempts to seduce her prisoners of war (London, 1918), 1 and 20; and Höpp, Muslime in der Mark, 83. [129] Doegen, Kriegsgefangene Völker, 12, n. 3. Höpp, Muslime in der Mark, 51. [130] ACICR, 446/III/c.62, Camps de propagande et d'éliminés en France, Propagande individuelle. [131] Jones, ‘The Enemy Disarmed’, 357–79. [132] Becker, ‘Charles de Gaulle, Prisonnier’, 98–115. On Hitler see Kershaw, Hitler, vol. 1, 117 and 123. [133] They were Otto Hofmann (1896–1982), SS Race and Settlement; Wilhelm Kritzinger (1890–1947), Reich Chancellery; Dr Roland Freisler (1893–1945), Reich Ministry of Justice; and Dr Alfred Meyer (1891–1945, Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories. See Schoenberner and Bihaly, House of the Wannsee Conference, 54–67. I am grateful to Mark Jones for bringing this source to my attention. [134] They were Otto Hofmann (1896–1982), SS Race and Settlement; Wilhelm Kritzinger (1890–1947), Reich Chancellery; Dr Roland Freisler (1893–1945), Reich Ministry of Justice; and Dr Alfred Meyer (1891–1945, Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories. See Schoenberner and Bihaly, House of the Wannsee Conference, 54–67. I am grateful to Mark Jones for bringing this source to my attention [135] Hinz, Gefangen im Großen Krieg, 353–63. [136] Gilbert, POW. Allied Prisoners in Europe, 97–100. [137] On the ICRC and the Second World War, see Favez, The Red Cross and the Holocaust. [138] MacKenzie, The Colditz Myth. [139] German Wehrmacht Supreme Command, Kriegsgefangene, 1914/18. [140] German Army Supreme Command, Kriegsgefangene, 1914/18, Preface.