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César Daly, Paris and the emergence of modern urban planning

2006; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 21; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/02665430600892088

1466-4518

Nicholas Papayanis,

Urbanization and City Planning

Abstract César Daly (1811–93), an architect by training, was the editor from 1839 to 1888 of the Revue générale de l’architecture et des travaux publics (RGA), one of the leading architectural journals on both sides of the Atlantic during the nineteenth century and was himself an influential architectural critic. While his importance as such has been ably and thoroughly chronicled by historians, his interest in urban planning has not received the close attention that it deserves. This article explores Daly’s understanding of the nature of the city in the modern industrial age. His theorization of those elements that determined the underlying infrastructure of cities and their centres, modern as well as ancient, was modelled upon Second‐Empire Paris. Such a theory, which synthesized many early nineteenth century speculations on the modern city, was intended to serve as a rational foundation for urban reforms in the French capital. It represented, moreover, a theoretical reading of Haussmannization at a mid point in this process. Daly was important, therefore, not only as an architectural critic but also as a significant thinker with respect to a theoretical understanding of city formation and planning and an interpreter of Haussmann’s reforms. His ideas, moreover, mark an important step in the eventual emergence of modern urban planning. Acknowledgement The author would like to thank Karen Bowie and Pierre‐Yves Saunier for reading an earlier version of this study and for their very helpful comments. Notes 1. M. Saboya, Presse et architecture au XIXe siècle: César Daly et la Revue générale de l’architecture et des travaux publics. Paris: Picard, 1991, pp. 127–8; for the relationship between Fourier’s ideas and the RGA, see also pp. 127–32, 283; D. Egbert, Social Radicalism and the Arts in Western Europe: A Cultural History from the French Revolution to 1968. New York: Knopf, 1970, p.141; and A. L. Van Zanten, Form and Society: César Daly and the Revue générale de l’architecture. Oppositions 8 (1977) 138. 2. A. L. Van Zanten, ibid., 135–45. 3. Ibid., 138, and M. Saboya, op. cit. [Footnote1], pp. 119–32. 4. A. L. Van Zanten, ibid., p. 137; M. Saboya, ibid., pp. 100–3; H. Lipstadt, Housing the Bourgeoisie: César Daly and the Ideal Home. Oppositions 8 (1977) 36. 5. M. Saboya, ibid., pp. 256–62. See also R. Becherer, Science Plus Sentiment: César Daly’s Formula for Modern Architecture. Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1980, 1984, pp. 201–46, where Becherer takes up Daly’s and the RGA’s intellectual perspectives on cities and on Paris; the treatment, however, focuses on Daly’s philosophical and ideological approach to the city rather than on urban planning per se. 6. C. Daly, Panorama du mouvement architectural du monde: accompli depuis deux ans (1860 & 1861). RGA 20, 1&2 (1862): cols 30–3; 5&6 (1862): cols 112–32; 7&8 (1862): cols 164–200; 11&12 (1862): col 219–40; 11&12 (1862): cols 271–286. C. Daly, Promenades et plantations, parcs, jardins publics, squares et boulevards de Paris. RGA (1863), pt 1, cols 128–32, pt 2, cols 173–6, pt 3, cols 245–9. 7. T. Hall, Planning Europe’s Capital Cities: Aspects of Nineteenth‐Century Urban Development. London: E&FN Spon, 1997, pp. 65–72; A. Sutcliffe, Towards the Planned City: Germany, Britain, the United States and France 1780–1914. New York: St Martin’s Press, 1981, p. 204. 8. T. Hall, ibid., p. 362. 9. For an analysis of Cerdá’s work and for what follows here, see T. Hall., ibid., pp. 126–43. Thoroughly grounded in abundant data, Cerdá’s plan aspired to universal applicability in its formulation of ‘general principles for the rational design of cities’ (ibid., p. 135). In 1867 Cerdá presented his urban planning ideas in his most important publication, the Teoría general de la urbanización de sus principios y doctrinas a la reforma y ensanche de Barcelona [General theory on urban development and the application of its principles and doctrines to the redevelopment and extension of Barcelona]. It has been characterized by Thomas Hall as ‘the first publication on town planning to appear during the nineteenth century, and perhaps the most remarkable’. Although his work was not known outside of Spain, Cerdá must rank as ‘one of the outstanding figures of modern town planning’ (ibid., pp. 363, 141). 10. M. Saboya, op. cit. [Footnote1], pp. 259–60. 11. For a definition of modern comprehensive urban planning, see A. Sutcliffe, op. cit. [Footnote7], pp. 1–8 and pp. 204–5, and T. Hall, op. cit. [Footnote7], p. 3. 12. The subject of urban planning in Paris during the first half of the nineteenth century is covered in N. Papayanis, Planning Paris Before Haussmann. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2004. See also K. Bowie (ed.), La Modernité avant Haussmann: Formes de l’espace urbain à Paris, 1801–1853. Paris: Editions Recherche, 2001. 13. B. Lepetit, The Pre‐Industrial Urban System: France, 1740–1840, trans. by G. Rogers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994, p. 418. 14. V. Considerant, Note sur les intérêts généraux de la ville de Paris, et spécialement du dixième arrondissement. RGA 5 (Jan. 1844): cols 22–9; Perreymond, Etudes sur la ville de Paris. RGA 3 (Dec. 1842): cols 540–54, 570–9; 4 (Jan. 1843): cols 25–37; 4 (Feb. 1843): cols 72–9, 79–88; 4 (Sept. 1843): cols 413–29; 4 (Oct. 1843): cols 449–58, 458–64, 464–9; 4 (Nov. 1843): cols 517–28; Perreymond, De la grande circulation dans Paris, et du livre de M. Hippolyte Meynadier. 15. See, for example, M. Chevalier, Politique. France; Le Choléra‐Morbus. Le Globe 100 (Apr. 9, 1832) 397, cols 1–2; M. Chevalier, Politique. France. Fin du choléra par un coup d’état. Le Globe 102 (Apr. 11, 1832) 405, cols 1–2; M. Chevalier, Religion saint‐simonienne: Fin du choléra par un coup d’état (Paris: publisher?, 1832); S. Flachat, Le Choléra. Assainissement de Paris. Le Globe 93 (Apr. 2, 1832), col. 3, p. 369–col. 3, p. 370; S. Flachat, Le Choléra. Assainissement de Paris, in M. Chevalier, S. Flachat, C. Duveyrier and H. Fournel, Religion saint‐simonienne. Politique industrielle et Système de la Méditerranée (Paris: publisher?, Mar. 1832), pp. 41–9; S. Flachat, Religion saint‐simonienne. Le Choléra. Assainissement de Paris (Éverat: publisher?, [1832?]); and H. Fournel, Au Roi. Le Globe 104 (Apr. 13, 1832), p. 413, cols 1–3. 16. See, for example, C. Daly, De l’Architecture domestique: monumentale. RGA I (April 1840), col. 198, and C. Daly, Des Rez‐de‐chaussées et des boutiques à Paris. RGA III (December 1842), col. 561. 17. C. Daly, Les Rues nouvelles. RGA VI, 2 (1845–6), col. 92. 18. C. Daly, Distribution d’eau dans Paris. RGA XII, 12 (1854), cols 377–9. 19. C. Daly, Nouvelle architecture à l’usage des prolétaires anglais. RGA VI, 4 (1845–6), cols 150–5. 20. See also C. Daly, Nouvelle architecture à l’usage des prolétaires anglais. RGA VI, 5 (1845–6), cols 210–22; C. Daly, Architecture domestique économique à l’usage des ouvriers. RGA VI, 9 (1845–6), cols 410–12; C. Daly, Des Habitations des ouvriers. RGA VI, pt 1, 10 (1845–6), cols 449–56; pt 2, 11 (1845–6), cols 503–9; pt 3, 12 (1845–6), cols 540–6; C. Daly, Maisons ouvrières d’angletaire, RGA X, 11 & 12 (1852), cols 403–5. 21. C. Daly, Nouvelle architecture, cols 214–22. Such housing would be constructed by private entrepreneurs with government participation just outside urban centres. Ideally each unit would accommodate about 300 families in a collective environment at reduced rents. Citing similar plans and constructions in Belgium and England, Daly described in detail, along with an illustration, a model of such a unit. The entire housing complex was in the form a quadrangle, while the fourth side consisted of administrative buildings, a school, a meeting hall, stores and the like. The courtyard of the structure, an obvious adaptation of a Fourierist Phalange, was given over in part to workshops, but mostly to children and trees. Each floor of the several housing units consisted of two families, each with four rooms, two bedrooms and two work rooms. Economy was achieved by the collective purchase of basic life necessities. 22. For a summary of these events, see J.‐L. Cohen and A. Lortie, Des Fortifs au perif: Paris, les seuils de la ville. Paris: Picard, 1991, pp. 17–38. See also P. Vigier, Paris pendant la Monarchie de Juillet. Paris: Diffusion Hachette, 1991, pp. 220–7; M. Fernandez‐Leveau, La Dernière enceinte de Paris, 1840–1870, 2 vols. Thèse de 3e cycle, Université de Paris VII, 1983; P. O’Brian, L’Embastillement de Paris: The Fortifications of Paris During the July Monarchy. French Historical Studies 9.1 (1975) 63–82 and A. Picon, Les Fortifications de Paris, in B. Belhoste, F. Masson and A. Picon (eds) Le Paris des Polytechniciens: Des Ingénieurs dans la ville. Paris: Délégation á l’action artistique de la ville de Paris, 1994, pp. 213–21. 23. C. Daly, Fortifications projetées pour Paris. RGA, 1 (September 1840), col. 573. This was an unsigned piece but Daly was identified as the author by Victor Considerant; see La Phalange I, no. 27 (November 1, 1840), col. 469. For the recognition of the railroad by Saint‐Simonians as a strategic asset, see A. Picon, Les Saints‐Simoniens: Raison, imaginaire et utopie. Paris: Belin, 2002, pp. 233–4. 24. C. Daly, ibid., col. 573. 25. C. Daly, Des fortifications de Paris. RGA II (January 1841), col. 28. 26. M. Chevalier, Système de la méditerranée. Paris: Au Bureau du Globe, 1832. For a general history of railroad development in France, see F. Caron, Histoire des chemins de fer en France, 1740–1883. Paris: Fayard, 1997. For an excellent introduction to the Saint‐Simonians, see R. Carlisle, The Proffered Crown: Saint‐Simonianism and the Doctrine of Hope. Baltimore/London: John Hopkins University Press, 1987. For a recent introduction to and synthesis of work on the Saint‐Simonians, see A. Picon, op. cit. [Footnote23]. 27. For a short summary of these issues, see P. Lavedan, Histoire de l’urbanisme à Paris. Paris: Diffusion Hachette, 1975, 1993, pp. 384–88; see also F. Boudon et al., Système de l’architecture urbaine: Le Quartier des Halles de Paris. 2 vols. Paris: Centre nationale de la recherche scientifique, 1977. 28. [C. Daly], Halles Centrales de Paris. RGA VIII, 4 & 5 (1849–50), cols 152–60. While unsigned, the content and style of the article clearly point to Daly as the author. 29. Ibid., cols 159–60. 30. C. Daly, Chemin de fer de jonction des Halles Centrales avec le chemin de fer de ceinture de Paris. RGA XII, 1–2 (1854), cols 58–60. 31. See also Daly’s extensive discussion of the architecture of railroad stations and of railroad construction in France. C. Daly, Chemins de fer français. RGA XII, 1 & 2 (1854), cols 60–4 and C. Daly, Des gares de chemins de fer: de l’architecture commerciale et industrielle. RGA, VI, 11 (1845–6), cols 509–18 and RGA VI, 12 (1845–6), cols 529–40. For his continued interest in street constructions, see Rues. RGA XIII, 3 (1855), cols 134–41 and Nouvelles voies de communication: rue de Rivoli. RGA XIV, 11 & 12 (1856), cols 394–95. 32. C. Daly, Panorama du mouvement architectural du monde. RGA XX (1862), 1 & 2, pt 1, cols 30–3, nos 5 & 6, pt 2, cols 112–32, nos 7 & 8, pt 3, cols 164–200, nos 11 & 12, pt 4, cols 219–40 and cols 271–86; C. Daly, Promenades et plantations, parcs, jardins publics, squares et boulevards de Paris. RGA vol.? (1863), pt 1, cols 128–32, pt 2, cols 173–6, pt 3, cols 245–9. 33. C. Daly, ‘Panorama’, ibid., cols 164–200. 34. Ibid., cols 164–5. 35. J. Reynaud, Villes, in P. Leroux and J. Reynaud (eds) Encyclopédie nouvelle, ou dictionnaire philosophique, scientifique, littéraire et industrielle (Paris, 1836–1841), VIII, col. 2, p. 670–col. 2, p. 687. 36. As Reynaud wrote, ‘The fundamental character of cities is that they are the residences of the elite of our world’. Ibid., col. 2, p. 670. 37. Ibid., col. 1, p. 671. Over a hundred years later Walter Christaller asked a similar set of questions in his exploration of city formation and development of a theory of central city placement. See W. Christaller, Central Places in Southern Germany, translated by C. W. Baskin. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice‐Hall, 1966. See also M‐C Robic, Cents ans avant Christaller … Une Théorie des lieux centraux. L’Espace Géographique 1 (1982) 5–12. 38. J. Reynaud, op. cit. [Footnote35], col. 1, p. 671. 39. Ibid., col. 1, p. 673. 40. Ibid., pp. 677, 678. 41. See B. Lepetit, op. cit. [Footnote13]. 42. A. Lenoir and P. Landry, Théories des villes: comment les villes se sont formées. RGA 12, 10 & 11 (1854), cols 292–8. The study has been characterized by one architectural‐urban historian as highly innovative; see P. Pinon, Les Conceptions urbaines au milieu du XIXe siècle, in J. Des Cars and P. Pinon (eds) Paris‐Haussmann: Le Pari d’Haussmann. Paris: Edition du Pavillon de l’Arsenal: Picard, 1991. col. 1, p. 45. 43. C. Daly in A. Lenoir and P. Landry, ibid., note 1, col. 292. 44. Ibid., col. 296. 45. C. Daly, Panorama, op. cit. [Footnote32], col. 168. 46. A. Lenoir and P. Landry, op. cit. [Footnote42], col. 294. 47. Ibid., col. 298. 48. Ibid. 49. Ibid. [their emphasis]. 50. C. Daly, Panorama, op. cit. [Footnote32], col. 170. 51. Ibid. 52. Ibid., col. 171. 53. Ibid., col. 172 [Daly’s emphasis]. 54. M.‐A. Laugier, An Essay on Architecture, translated by W. Herrmann and A. Herrmann. Los Angeles: Hennessy & Ingalls, 1977. 55. Ibid., pp. 121, 122, 120. 56. C. Daly, Panorama, op. cit. [Footnote32], cols 172–3. 57. Ibid., col. 174. 58. D. Jordan, Transforming Paris: The Life and Labors of Baron Haussmann. New York: Free Press, 1995, pp. 156–7. 59. C. Daly, Panorama, op. cit. [Footnote32], cols 174–5. 60. Ibid., col. 175. 61. Ibid., col. 179. 62. Ibid. 63. Ibid., col. 180. For an extended discussion of regional planning, see ibid., cols 180–3. 64. T. Hall, op. cit. [Footnote7], pp. 71–2. For a summary of work on Paris suburban development, see A. Fourcaut (ed.), Un Siècle de banlieue parisienne (1859–1964): Guide de recherche, 2nd edn. Paris: L’Harmattan,1988, 1996. 65. C. Daly, Panorama, op. cit. [Footnote32], cols 180–1. 66. Ibid., col. 186. 67. Ibid., col. 186. 68. Ibid., 187. 69. Ibid. 70. H. Meynadier, Paris sous le point de de vue pittoresque et monumental ou Éléments d’un plan général d’ensemble de travaux d’art et d’utilité publique. Paris: publisher?, 1843, p. 230. 71. For what follows on the background to the preservationist movement, see A. Sutcliffe, The Autumn of Central Paris: The Defeat of Town Planning, 1850–1970. Montreal: McGill‐Queens University Press, 1971, pp. 179–85. 72. C. Daly, Panorama, op. cit. [Footnote32], cols 176–7 [col. 177 for quote, his emphasis]. 73. Ibid., col. 177. 74. C. Daly, Un Hôtel rue du Cherche‐Midi. RGA vol.? (1863), cols 279–82. 75. Ibid., cols 279–80. 76. Ibid., col. 280. 77. Ibid., col. 281 [his emphasis]. Daly made the same point about Paris as the centre of world culture in L’Architecture privée aux XIXe siècle: Nouvelles maisons de Paris et des environs, 3 vols. Paris: publisher?, 1870, 1864, I: pp. 6–7; and in C. Daly, Panorama, op. cit. [Footnote32], col. 33. 78. C. Daly, L’Architecture privée, ibid., p. 6, and Un Hôtel, ibid., col. 281. 79. C. Daly, Un Hôtel, ibid., cols 281, 282. 80. C. Daly, Panorama, op. cit. [Footnote32], cols 220, 229 [quote], 221–3. 81. Ibid., cols 271–86. 82. Ibid., cols 32–3. 83. Ibid., col. 117. 84. C. Daly, Promenades et plantations, op. cit. [Footnote32]. 85. Ibid., col. 128. 86. Ibid., col. 249. 87. For a discussion of modern planning in England and Germany, see A. Sutcliffe, op. cit. [Footnote7], pp. 9–87. Additional informationNotes on contributorsNicholas Papayanis Nicholas Papayanis (1940–2004) was a Professor Emeritus of History at the City University of New York’s Brooklyn College and the Graduate Center. He is the author of a biography of the revolutionary syndicalist leader Alphonse Merrheim, as well as three subsequent books on the history of Paris – The Coachmen of Nineteenth‐Century Paris: Service Workers and Class Consciousness; Horsedrawn Cabs and Omnibuses in Paris: The Idea of Circulation and the Business of Public Transit; and Planning Paris before Haussmann – as well as numerous articles on labour and transportation history. He was working on a social and intellectual history of urban planning texts and projects in Paris and the emergence of an urban planning discipline in the French capital from the late eighteenth to the early twentieth century when he passed away in 2004, after a heroic battle with pancreatic cancer.