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The politics of educational exchange: Turkish education in Eurasia

2004; Routledge; Volume: 56; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/0966813042000190551

1465-3427

Lerna K. Yanık,

Cyprus History, Politics, Society

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes The literature on the role of education in foreign policy is quite limited. The existing literature usually describes the American educational efforts during the Cold War. See for example Liping Bu, ‘Educational Exchange and Cultural Diplomacy in the Cold War’, Journal of American Studies, 33, 3, 1999, pp. 393–415; Frank A. Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1981); Philip H. Coombs, The Fourth Dimension of Foreign Policy: Educational and Cultural Affairs (New York, Harper and Row, 1964). Alan Makovsky & Sabri Sayari, ‘Introduction’, in Alan Makovsky & Sabri Sayari (eds), Turkey's New World: Changing Dynamics in Turkish Foreign Policy (Washington, DC, The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 2001), pp. 2–3; Alan Makovsky, ‘A New Activism in Turkish Foreign Policy’, SAIS Review, 19, 1, Winter/Spring 1999, pp. 92–113; Kenneth McKenzie, ‘Turkey’s Circumspect Activism', The World Today, 49, February 1993, pp. 25–26; Kemal Kirişçi, ‘New Patterns of Turkish Foreign Policy Behavior’, in Çiğdem Balim et al. (eds), Turkey: Political, Social and Economic Challenges in the 1990s (Leiden, New York, and Cologne, E. J. Brill, 1995), p. 1. Turkish Embassy.Org at Washington, DC, http://www.turkey.org/governmentpolitics/regionscentralasia.htm, accessed 12 September 2003. Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, NY, Cornell University Press, 1983), p. 36; William A. Reed, ‘Curriculum as an Expression of National Identity’, Journal of Curriculum Supervision, 15, 2, 2000, pp. 113–133: Carolyn P. Boyd, Historia Patria: Politics, History and National Identity in Spain, 1875–1975 (Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1997). Köksal Toptan, Türk Cumhuriyetleri E ğ itim Bakanlari Konferansi Açili ş Konu ş masi (16–23 Mayts 1992), p. 11. Süleyman Demirel, ‘Cumhurbaşkani Sayin Süleyman Demirel’in TBMM'nin 20. Dönem 4. Yasama Yili Açilişinda Yaptiği Konuşma', in Cumhurba ş kant Sayin Süleyman Demirel'in Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisinde Yapti ğ i Konu ş malar, p. 154; Süleyman Demirel, ‘Cumhurbaşkani Sayin Süleyman Demirel’in TBMM'nin 21. Dönem 2. Yasama Yili Açilişinda Yaptiği Konuşma', in Cumhurba ş kani Sayin Süleyman Demirel'in Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisinde Yapti ğ i Konu ş malar, p. 221. Milli Eğitim Bakanliği, Türk Cumhuriyetleri ve Türk Topluluklarina Yönelik Hizmetler (1992–1993) (Ankara, Milli Eğitim Bakanliği Basimevi, 1993), p. 22. Interview with a Ministry of Foreign Affairs official in Ankara, 18 January 2002. See also Toptan, Türk Cumhuriyetleri E ğ itim Bakanlari Konferansi Açili ş Konu ş masi (16–23 Mayis 1992), p. 11. ‘Central Asian Diplomats Train in Turkey’, FBIS‐SOV‐92–119, 19 June 1992. Avrasya Dosyasi, no. 107, September 1998, p. 8. In 1998 this training programme also started to accept young diplomats from several African countries. MEB 2001, http://www.meb.gov.tr, accessed 30 December 2001. Milli Eğitim Bakanliği, Türk Cumhuriyetleri ve Türk Topluluklarina Yönelik Hizmetler (1992–1993), p. 11. Avni Akyol, Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi Tutanaklari, 29 April 1993, Session: 97/1; Ali Dinçer, Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi Tutanaklari, 6 December 1994, Session: 46/1, p. 166; Nevzat Ayaz, Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi Tutanaklari, 6 December 1994, Session: 46/1, pp. 168–169; ‘Turkish Universities Home to Nearly 10,000 Turkic Students’, Turkish Daily News, 29 January 1997, http://www.turkishdailynews.com/old_editions/01_29_97/for.htm#f4, accessed 30 March 2003. Milli Eğitim Bakanliği, Türk Cumhuriyetleri ve Türk Topluluklarina Yönelik Hizmetler (1992–1993), p. 19. Süleyman Demirel, ‘Cumhurbaşkani Sayin Süleyman Demirel’in Milliyet Gazetesine Verdiği Mülakat', in Cumhurba ş kani Sayin Süleyman Demirel'in Gazetelere Verdikleri Mülakatlar, p. 1011. An official from the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs expressed the same view, saying that some degree of failure was quite natural (interview with an official of the Ministry of Turkish Foreign Affairs in Ankara, 18 January 2002). ‘Uzbek President Recalls 2,000 Students From Turkey’, FBIS‐SOV‐97–237, 25 August 1997; Enis Berberoğlu, Öbür Türkler: “Büyük Oyun” un Milliyetçi Süvarileri (İstanbul: Doğan Kitapçilik, 1999), pp. 120–127. ‘Uzbek Delegation Arrives for Talks on Education’, FBIS‐WEU‐94–107, 25 September 1994. Berberoğlu, Öbür Türkler: “Büyük Oyun” un Milliyetçi Süvarileri, pp. 120–127. MEB İstatistik, http://www.meb.gov.tr/stats/Apk2002/67.htm, accessed 5 February 2003. ‘Ankara Denies Uzbek Opposition Leader in Turkey’, FBIS‐WEU‐1999–0317, 17 March 1999. ‘Ecevit: El Koyma Görüşülmedi’, Hürriyet, 22 June 1999, http://hurweb01.hurriyet.com.tr/hur/turk/99/06/22/gundem/08 gun.htm, accessed 15 June 2001. Sami Kohen, ‘Türk Dünyasinda Yeni Atilim’, Milliyet, 27 August 1997, http://www.milliyet.com.tr/1997/08/27, accessed 25 November 2001. MEB 2001 report, http://www.meb/gov.tr, accessed 30 December 2001. Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi Tutanaklari, 21 February 1995, Session: 77/1, pp. 468–469. Abbas Güçlü, ‘Türki Öğrenciler’, Milliyet, 26 May 2000, http://www.milliyet.com/2000/05/26/yazar/guclu.html, accessed 26 May 2000. Abdulhaluk Çay, Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi Tutanaklari, 15 June 2001, http://www.tbmm.gov.tr, accessed 26 December 2001. Interview with a Ministry of Foreign Affairs official in Ankara, 18 January 2002. Abdulhaluk Çay, Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi Tutanaklari, 15 June 2001, http://www.tbmm.gov.tr, accessed 26 December 2001. İsmail Cem, Di ş i ş leri Bakani Sayin İ smail Cem'in Di ş i ş leri Bakanli ğ i 2002 Mali Yili Bütçe Tasarisini Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi Genel Kurulu'na Takdimi Vesilesiyle Hazirlanan Kitapçik (Ankara, n.p., 2001), p. 28. ‘Anatolian high school’ is a term that is used for schools that have English as the language of education. Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi Tutanaklari, 21 February 1995, Session: 77/1, pp. 468–469. Hoca Ahmet Yesevi University has its executive board in Ankara and campuses in three different cities of Kazakhstan. The teaching languages of the university are Kazakh, Turkish and Russian. Of the 14,044 students, 489 are from Turkey. The university has 1,041 academic staff, 983 of whom are Kazakh and 43 are Turkish; see http://www.yesevi.edu.tr, accessed 22 October 2002. Hulusi Turgut, ‘Fetullah Gülen ve Okullari’, Yeni Yüzyil, 30 January 1998, p. 6. Hulusi Turgut, ‘Fetullah Gülen ve Okullari’, Yeni Yüzyil, 25 January 1998, p. 6. Ömer Laçiner, ‘Postmodern Bir Din Hareketi: Fetullah Gülen Hoca Cemaati’, Birikim, no. 76, August 1995, p. 10; M. Hakan Yavuz, ‘Towards an Islamic Liberalism? The Nurcu Movement and Fetullah Gülen’, The Middle East Journal, 53, 4, Autumn 1999, p. 596. Cennet Engin Demir et al., ‘The Role of Turkish Schools in the Educational System and Social Transformation of Central Asian Countries: the Case of Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan’, Central Asian Survey, 19, 1, 2000, pp. 141–155; Hulusi Turgut, ‘Fetullah Gülen ve Okullari’, Yeni Yüzyil, 23 January 1998, p. 6; Hulusi Turgut, ‘Fetullah Gülen ve Okullari’, Yeni Yüzyil, 30 January 1998, p. 6; Hulusi Turgut, ‘Fetullah Gülen ve Okullari’, Yeni Yüzyil, 31 January 1998, p. 6. ‘Onlar da Desteklemiş’, Hürriyet, 22 June 1999, http://hurweb01.hurriyet.com.tr/hur/turk/99/06/22/gundem/03gun.htm, accessed 15 June 2001. For Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs officials, on the other hand, these reference letters written by high‐level officials were quite natural because these schools were no different from any other commercial enterprises that were established in the newly independent states. Şerif Mardin, Religion and Social Change in Modern Turkey: The Case of Bediüzzaman Said Nursi (Albany, State University of New York Press, 1989), p. 8. Ibid., p. 77. Ibid., pp. 77–79, 86; Paul Dumont, ‘Disciples of Light: The Nurcu Movement in Turkey’, Central Asian Survey, 5, 2, 1986, pp. 45–46. Hulusi Turgut, ‘Fetullah Gülen ve Okullari’, Yeni Yüzyil, 15 January 1998, p. 6. Ibid. Hulusi Turgut, ‘Fetullah Gülen ve Okullari’, Yeni Yüzyil, 2 February 1998, p. 6. Hulusi Turgut, ‘Fetullah Gülen ve Okullari’, Yeni Yüzyil, 16 January 1998, p. 6. Ibid. Hulusi Turgut, ‘Fetullah Gülen ve Okullari’, Yeni Yüzyil, 22 January 1998, p. 6. Hulusi Turgut, ‘Fetullah Gülen ve Okullari’, Yeni Yüzyil, 17 January 1998, p. 8. Ibid., Hulusi Turgut, ‘Fetullah Gülen ve Okullari’, Yeni Yüzyil, 20 January 1998, p. 6. Hulusi Turgut, ‘Fetullah Gülen ve Okullari’, Yeni Yüzyil, 24 January 1998; The Economist, 8 July 2000, p. 52. The reason for the support was not only these schools. By declaring ‘tesettür’ (the covering of Muslim women) a ‘detail’, and calling for a social consensus, Fetullah Gülen initially managed to present his movement as a possible future alternative to the religious Welfare Party. Because of this, before the December 1995 general election almost all major party leaders visited Fetullah Gülen and tried to gain his and his followers' support against the Welfare Party. Furthermore, the Nurcu community also tried to maintain a good relationship with the state. Gazeteciler and Yazarlar Vakfi (The Journalists' and Writers' Foundation), which was closely associated with the Nurcu community and whose honorary head was Fetullah Gülen, gave former President Demirel, former Minister of Foreign Affairs Hikmet Çetin and the head of the Turkish Grand National Assembly various awards. However, it was only former Army Chief of Staff Ismail Hakki Karadayi who rejected the award from this foundation, indicating the doubts of the Turkish armed forces about Fetullah Gülen and his Nurcu community. See for example ‘Islamic Sect Leader Contacts Party Leaders’, Turkish Daily News, 26 June 1995, p. 3, and ‘Onlar da Desteklemiş’, Hürriyet, 22 June 1999, http://hurweb01.hurriyet.com.tr/hur/turk/99/06/22/gundem/03gun.htm, accessed 15 June 2001. ‘Özbekistan, Fetullahçilarin Peşinde’, Cumhuriyet, 16 March 2000, p. 12. Berberoğlu, Öbür Türkler: “Büyük Oyun “un Milliyetçi Süvarileri, p. 126. MEB 2001 report, http://www.meb.gov.tr, accessed 30 December 2001; ‘Özbekistan, Fetullahçilarin Peşinde’, Cumhuriyet, 16 March 2000, p. 12. Right‐wing newspapers, and especially Zaman, were quite instrumental in disseminating Gülen's views; see for example Zaman, 21 June 1999, 22 June 1999, 23 June 1999, 29 June 1999; also Yeni Ş afak, 20 June 1999, 23 June 1999, Yeni Asya, 21 June 1999 and Milli Gazete, 23 June 1999; see also Ferhat Bariş, Maskeli Balon: Medyatik Bir Infazin Anatomisi (Istanbul; Timaş Yayinlari, 1999). ‘DGM 10 Yil Ağir Hapis İstemiyle Dava Açti ve Uyardi’, Hürriyet, 31 August 2000, http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/hur/turk/00/09/01/turkiye/02tur.htm, accessed 22 June 2001; Douglas Frantz, ‘Turkey Assails a Revered Islamic Moderate’, New York Times, 25 August 2000, p. 4; Jeanne Moore, ‘Turkey: Islamicist Sought’, New York Times, 12 August 2000, p. 4. In March 2003 newspapers reported that there was the possibility of granting amnesty to Fetullah Gülen; see ‘Fetullah Hoca da ‘Af’ Kapsammda’, Milliyet, 11 March 2003, www.milliyet.com.tr/2003/03/11/guncel/gun10.html, accessed 11 March 2003, and ‘Gökçer Tahincioğlu ‘Gülen’in Avukati ‘Beraat’ Peşinde’, Milliyet, 12 March 2003, www.milliyet.com.tr/2003/03/12/guncel/gun20.html, accessed 13 March 2003. Kemal İlter, ‘Ambassadors Back Gülen Schools in Asia’, Turkish Daily News, 29 June 2000, http://www.turkishdailynews.com/old‐editions/06_29_00/for.htm#f3, accessed 29 March 2003. Önder Yilmaz Tiran, ‘Ecevit, Gülen’e Siper', Milliyet, 1 March 2000, http://www.milliyet.com/2000/03/01/siyaset/siy05.html, accessed 3 March 2000; The Economist, 8 July 2000, p. 52. Ebru Toktar, ‘Şeriatçilara Karşi Eğitim Ataği’, Cumhuriyet, 23 October 2000, p. 12. Ibid. ‘Kerimov and Cem Work to Thaw Turk–Uzbek Relations’, Turkish Daily News, 4 October 2000, www.turkishdailynews.com/old_editions/10_04_00/for.htm#f4, accessed 24 March 2003. Turkey has since tried to improve its relations with Uzbekistan. In 2001 Turkey granted $1.5 million military aid to Uzbekistan and $610,000 in 2002. Turkey also trained Uzbek soldiers (‘Turkey Equips, Trains Uzbek Military’, Turkish Daily News, 7 March 2002, http://www.turkishdailynews.com/old_editions/03_07_02/for.htm#f5, accessed 31 March 2003. ‘Turkey Denies Targeting Gülen Schools in Central Asia’, Turkish Daily News, 24 October 2000, www.turkishdailynews.com/old_editions/10_24_00/for.htm#f9, accessed 30 March 2003. ‘Fetullah Gülen’in Okullarina Gözalti', Hürriyet, 6 February 2001, http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/hur/turk/01/02/06/turkiye/63tur.htm, accessed 2 February 2003. ‘Fetullah’in Ders Kitaplari İncelemede', Milliyet, 16 February 2001, http://www.milliyet.com/2001/02/16/guncel/gun10.html, accessed 16 February 2001. A close eye was also kept on educational institutions associated with the Nurcu community in Turkey. In May 2002, in the Karachai‐Cherkessia region of the Russian Federation, a high school that was known to have ties to the Nurcu communities was closed down by the authorities in order to ‘protect the young against hostile ideology’; see ‘Russia: Islamic Extremists Schools Closed in Karachai Cherkessia’, FBIS‐SOV‐2002–0528, 28 May 2002. This was followed by other school closures elsewhere in Russia; see Cenk Başlamiş, ‘Rusya’daki Türk Okullari Kapatiliyor', Milliyet, 28 August 2003, http://www.milliyet.com.tr/2003/08/28/siyaset/siy07.html, accessed 10 September 2003. The reason that was given by the authorities was the same; see Cenk Başlamiş, ‘Rusya’daki Gülen Okullari Tehlikede', Milliyet, 1 May 2003, http://www.milliyet.com.tr/2003/05/01/siyaset/siy04.html, accessed 1 May 2003; Cenk Baslamiş, ‘Türk Okullarinin Beynine Yasak’, Milliyet, 7 September 2003, http://www.milliyet.com.tr/2003/09/07/siyaset/siy01.html, accessed 15 September 2003. ‘Mallari Tehlikede’, Hürriyet, 22 June 1999, http://hurweb01.hurriyet.com.tr/hur/turk/99/06/22/gundem/02gun.htm, accessed 15 June 2001. TÜDAV webpage, http://www.tdav.org/etkinlik/yd_egitim.htm, accessed 24 April 2001. ‘Turanci Diyen Ahmaktir’, Nokta, 7 June 1992, pp. 26–27. TÜDAV website, http://www.tdav.org/etkinlik/yd_egitim.htm, accessed 24 April 2001. Ibid. Ibid. BBC Monitoring Central Asia Unit, 25 September 2002. ‘Turkish Education Starts in Baku’, Turkish Daily News, 15 November 2002, www.turkisdailynews.com/old_editions/11_15_02/dom.htm#d6, accessed 6 March 2003. See for example ‘Islamic Evangelists: Gülen Eyes the Generals’, The Economist, 8 July 2000, p. 52; Abdullah Akkuş, ‘Tutuklu Türkleri Alin Götürün’, Milliyet, 10 January 2003, http://www.milliyet.com.tr/2003/01/10/siyaset/siy04.html, accessed 10 January 2003; İsmail Altunsoy & Ahmet Dönmez, ‘Turk Okullarini Öven Nazarbayev İşadamlarini Yatirima Çağirdi’, Zaman, 22 May 2003, http://www.zaman.com.tr/2003/05/22/dis/h2.htm, accessed 17 September 2003; ‘Atatürk’ün Dostu Dostum, Düşmani Düşmanim', Hürriyet, 18 October 2000, p. 24. Engin Demir et al., ‘The Role of Turkish Schools in the Educational System and Social Transformation of Central Asian Countries’, pp. 141–155; Yasemin Kilit Aklar, ‘Education and Turkic Identity in Azerbaijan’, paper presented at the Fifth Annual Convention of the Association for the Study of Nationalities, 15 April 2000, New York.