Portal de Periódicos da CAPES

THE DEMOCRATISATION OF THE EDUCATION SYSTEM IN FRANCE AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR: A NEO-WEBERIAN GLOCAL APPROACH TO EDUCATION REFORMS

2007; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 55; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1111/j.1467-8527.2007.00372.x

1467-8527

Julia Resnik,

Education, sociology, and vocational training

ABSTRACT: ABSTRACT: The structural reforms of the education system in France (1959, 1963, and 1975) were part both of a global process of democratisation of education launched after the Second World War and of a larger modernisation project in which knowledge producers (experts, scholars and consultants) played a crucial role. Instead of a national approach or a world system approach to education reforms I propose a neo-Weberian glocal perspective that focuses on knowledge producers as a status group, education discourse structuration and education global networks; this perspective integrates national contexts and their peculiarities in the analysis without losing sight of the global forces. Global education networks centered in international organisations – such as UNESCO and the OECD – in which French knowledge-producers were largely involved, adopted a discourse inspired by the American school model that was adopted by scholars in different countries. The reformist network, in which scholars, experts and policy makers participated, enhanced reformist discourse structuration in the knowledge-production institutions (universities and national institutes) around social problems such as 'technological and scientific lag', 'inequality of opportunity', and 'disenchantment from the education system', thus, fostering transformations of the French education system. Keywords: French education system democratisation global education Weber reformist discourse Notes 1 Prost relates to de Gaulle's relative freedom of action at the beginning of the V Republic. For an historical account of the evolution of the education system in France, see also Legrand (1988 MAZON, B. 1988. Aux origines de l'école des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales: le rôle du mécénat américain (1920–1960), Paris: Editions du Cerf. préface de Pierre Bourdieu, postface Charles Moraze [Google Scholar]). 2 Roland Robertson's (1995) glocalisation concept of the relationship between the global and the local Robertson (1995), like Appadurai (1990 ARNOVE, R.F. 1980. Comparative education and World-Sytems Analysis. Comparative Education Review, 24: 48–62. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), upholds a vision of the world as having systemic properties beyond the units that comprise it, while also questioning the thesis that casts globalisation as a process of homogenisation. Similarly, my work is grounded in the vision of a global educational world, but also takes into account the action of the state in shaping educational policies. 3 The social order consists of status groups, the economic order is composed of classes, and the legal/political order is composed by parties. Each order affects and is affected by the others; classes are defined in terms of market status and prestige, and power may reside in a number of various types of bases. The emergence of an economic power may transpire due to power existing on other grounds (Weber, 1968 WITTROCK, B., WAGNER, P. and HOLLMAN, H. 1991. "Social sciences and the modern state: policy knowledge and political institutions in Western Europe and the United States". In Social Sciences and the Modern States: National Experiences and Theoretical Crossroads, Edited by: WAGNER, P., WEISS, C.H., WITTROCK, B. and WOLLMANN, H. 28–85. (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press). [Crossref] , [Google Scholar]). 4 In his 'Field of knowledge'Fritz Ringer (1992 ROBERTSON, S.L. 2006. Absences and imaginings: the production of knowledge on globalisation and education. Globalisation, Societies and Education, 4(2): 303–318. [Taylor & Francis Online] , [Google Scholar]) compares intellectuals in France and Germany (1890–1930), and he explains that he prefers the status group's concept instead of Bourdieu's cultural capital because of the historical significance of 'status'. 5 Anderson-Levitt (2005 ANDERSON-LEVITT, K., ed. 2005. Local Meanings, Global Schooling, (New York: Palgrave Macmillan). [Google Scholar]) contends that world culture theorists grossly underestimate the importance of power, sometimes mistaking coercion for voluntary adoption. 6 Ferdinand Buisson from the Radical Party in 1909, the 'Compagnons de l'Université nouvelle' after the First World War, Jean Zay, Minister of Education of the Front Populaire in 1937 and the Langevin and Wallon law project of 1947. 7 The CNPS (Centre national de Pédagogie Spéciale), the AFPS (Association Française de Psychologie Scientifique) and journals such as the Journal de Psychologie and Enfance, directed by René Zazzo, were involved in studies on retarded children. Ravon, 2000 RESNIK, J. 2006. International organisations, the 'education-economic growth' black box, and the development of world education culture. Comparative Education Review, 50(2): 173–195. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar], pp. 86–87. 8 Paul Langevin, was professor at the renowned Collège de France, president of the Groupe français d'Education nouvelle (1944–Dec.1946). Henri Wallon was professor at the renowned Collège de France, and president of the Société française de Pédagogie. 9 From the Radical Socialist party. 10 Colloque de Caen 1956, Avant Propos, Mendès-France. 11 J. Monod – biochemist, medicine Nobel Prize. 12 A. Lichnénerowizc – mathematician, professor at the prestigious Collège de France. 13 Assemblée Nationale, Séance du 25 juillet 1957, p. 3968. 14 Jean Stoetzel was recruited to the INED already in 1945. 15 It may be confusing that while I speak about the psycho-social section of the INED, I refer to it as belonging to the socio-cultural approach. But my terminology has a coherence in terms of the evolution of the discourse on education throughout the years in France. 16 Some of the articles drawing on cultural characteristics in order to explain children school failure: Bronfenbrenner, U. (1958) Socialization and social class through time and space. In E.E. Maccoby, T. H Newcomb and E.L. Hartley (Eds) Reading in Social Psychology (New York, Holt), pp. 400–425. Kohn, M.L. (1959) Social class and the exercise of parental authority, American Sociological Review, 24 (3), 352–386. Kohn, M.L. (1963) Social class and parental child relationship. An interpretation, American Journal of Psychology, 64 (8), (473–474). Krauss, I. (1964) Educational aspirations among working class youth, American Sociological Review, 29, 867–879. 17 Among the studies undertaken: Girard, A. (1962) L'origine sociale des élèves de classe de sixième, Population n° 1. Girard, A., Bastide, H. and Pourcher, G. (1963) Enquête nationale sur l'entrée en sixième et la démocratisation de l'enseignement, Population n° 1. Girard, A. and Bastide, H. (1963) La stratification sociale et la démocratisation de l'enseignement, Population n° 3. Girard, A. (1966) Les facteurs psychologiques et sociaux de l'orientation et de la sélection scolaires. Le cheminement d'une promotion d'élèves pendant les deux premières années suivant la sortie du cycle élémentaire.'Population, n° 4. 18 Jean Fourastié, Politiques de Croissance Economique et d'Investissement dans l'Enseignement, Conférence de Washington II. Les objectifs de l'éducation en Europe pour 1970, OECD 16–20 Octobre 1961. 19 OCDE, Comité du personnel scientifique et technique. Examen des politiques nationales en matières d'éducation, France, VOL. 1, Planification du Système d'enseignement, 1968, 262–271. 20 Mincer, J. (1958 PAULSTON, R. 1968. Educational Change in Sweden: Planning and Accepting the Comprehensive Schools Reforms, (New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University). [Google Scholar]) Investment in human capital and personal income distribution, Journal of Political Economy, 66, August, 281–302. Schultz, T. (1961) Investment in human capital, American Economic Review, March, 1–17. Schultz, T. (1963) The Economic Value of Education (New York, Columbia University Press). Denison, E.S. (1964) La mesure de la contribution de l'enseignement (et du facteur résiduel) a la croissance économique, OCDE. Le facteur résiduel et le progrès économique (Paris, OCDE), 13–111. Denison, E.S. (1965) Education and economic productivity. In S. Harris (Ed.) Education and Public Policy (Berkeley, McCutchen), 328–340. 21 Reformes et projets de reformes de l'enseignement français de la revolution a nos jours (1789–1960). Etude historique, analytique et critique redigee par Luc Decaunes a partir d'une documentaion reunie par M.L. Cavalier, Institut Pédagogique National, 1962 (Mémoires et Documents Scolaires), p. 198. 22 Assemblée Nationale, Séance du 23 juillet 1957 Annexe N 5596 pp. 2653–2655. 23 An argument often used by communists and socialists. 24 Assemblée Nationale, Séance du 24 juillet 1957, p. 3938. 25 Ducos belonged to the Républicains Radicaux Socialist Party. 26 Assemblée Nationale, Séance du 23 juillet 1957 Annexe N 5596, pp. 2653–2655. 27 Cadres were defined as personnel in charge of training, leading, guiding and counselling others. 28 Jean Fourastié and Raymond Poignant, 'Le développement des enseignements du second degré et supérieur et l'évolution de l'emploi'Colloque sur l'éducation nationale. Sous les auspices du Grand Orient de France (1962). 29 Alfred Sauvy, Colloque sur l'éducation nationale. Sous les auspices du Grand Orient de France, 1962. 30 Jean Fourastié and Raymond Poignant, op. cit. 31 Jean Fourastié and Raymond Poignant, Le développement des enseignements du second degré et supérieur et l'évolution de l'emploi, Colloque sur l'éducation nationale. Sous les auspices du Grand Orient de France (1962). 32 Louis Gros, Colloque sur l'éducation nationale. Sous les auspices du Grand Orient de France (1962). 33 Jean Capelle, Colloque sur l'éducation nationale. Sous les auspices du Grand Orient de France (1962) pp. 181–182. 34 Georges Pompidou, Prime Minister, Assemblée Nationale in the Assemblée Nationale 1er séance du 19 juin 1963, p. 3551. 35 Fourastié, M. and Poignant, R. (1962) Le développement des enseignements du second degré et supérieur et l'évolution de l'emploi. In Colloque sur l'éducation nationale. Sous les auspices du Grand Orient de France. 36 1946 UNESCO 50 Years of Education (1997) UNESCO, Education Sector, Paris, p. 60. The declarations have been further compiled and published in the 'International Conference on Public Education. Recommendations'. UNESCO –IBE, 1978, With an historical note by P. Rosello (English, French, Spanish). 37 Jean Capelle, Director General of the Ministry of Education, 1961–1964. 38 Jacques Hallak was in charge of the mission at the 'Direction du Trésor au Service des études économiques et financiers' for five years and took part in the preparation of the French Plans. Among the documents he wrote: 'The Analysis of Educational Costs and Expenditure' in the IEP Series 'The Financing of Educational Expenditure, 1970–80', document prepared for the Faure Commission (1972) by R. Poignant, J. Hallak, Ta Ngoc Chau and C. Tibi. 39 Georges Pompidou, Prime minister, Assemblée Nationale, 1er séance du 19 juin 1963, pp. 3602–3604. 40 Fouchet presented the 'inequality of opportunity 'social problem based on research findings: children of parents belonging to liberal professions and top managers represented ten per cent of the students at the university while they were only three or four per cent of the population, teachers' children represented six per cent of university students while their parents represented not more than one per cent. All of them, according to Fouchet, were evidence of social injustice. Cited in: Fouchet in the Assemblée Nationale 1er séance du 19 juin 1963, p. 3557. 41 Ducos, Assemblée Nationale 1er séance du 19 juin 1963, p. 3596. 42 Dupuy, Assemblée Nationale 1er séance du 19 juin 1963, p. 3597. 43 Ducos, Assemblée Nationale 1er séance du 19 juin 1963, p. 3596. 44 A study done in stages that eventually covered the 1962–1972 period. 45 Many of the studies were undertaken in the Research Department of the CNDP (former INRP) headed by Louis Legrand. The 'tiers temps' ('third-time') programme which dealt with timetable and curriculum adaptations, the 'new mathematics' project carried out by the Lichnénerowicz Commission, the new global method for French learning studied by the Rouchette Commission and Legrand's project on colleges were among the most significant projects undertaken by the CNDP (Resnik, 2001 RINGER, F. 1992. Fields of Knowledge, (New York: Cambridge University Press). [Google Scholar]). 46 Most scholars maintain that the globalisation process began in the 1980s, see, Robertson, R. (1995) Glocalization: time-space and homogeneity-heterogeneity. In M. Featherstone, S. Lash and R. Robertson (Eds) Global Modernities (London, Sage), 25–44. Publications; Tomlinson, J. (1999) Burbules, N.C. and Torres, C.A. (2000) Globalization and education: an introduction. In N.C. Burbules and Torres, C.A. (Eds) Globalization and Education: Critical Perspectives (London, New York, Routledge); Tomlinson, J. (1999) Globalization and Culture (Chicago, University of Chicago Press); Suarez-Orosco, M.M. and Baolian Qin-Hilliard, D. (Eds) (2004) Globalization – Culture and Education in the new Millennium (Berkeley, University of California Press).