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The Kingdom, the Power and Forevermore: Zimbabwe Culture in Contemporary Art and Architecture

2006; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 32; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/03057070600995681

1465-3893

Innocent Pikirayi,

Urban and Rural Development Challenges

Abstract According to Qassim Sultan, architectural heritage reflects the development of society, and its ability to adapt and meet functional and other needs.Footnote1 It is manifest in monuments and public buildings, which create a sense of continuity between the past and the present. Scholars are increasingly interested in the way such sites evoke memories, define cultural identities and create a sense of belonging. Architectural heritage can become part of a community's expression of belief in its history, culture and self. This article explores such issues in relation to public buildings and holiday resorts constructed in Zimbabwe since the early 1990s, focusing on architectural styles inspired by the country's rich archaeological and historical heritage, which are discussed in the light of debates over 'post-modernist' architecture. The article argues that architectural heritage plays a critical role in contemporary Zimbabwe, as demonstrated by the range of functions served by these buildings. Yet for archaeologists this heritage poses challenging questions regarding the ways in which the past is represented. It is evident that the past 'sells', despite inconsistencies in its presentation, representation and interpretation. Indeed, the marketing of this heritage is largely for tourist consumption. Some buildings evoke 'usable' notions of the past, provoking inspiration and a sense of attachment or nostalgia. Other buildings express political power, economic control and ritual elaboration on the part of the postcolonial state. * This article was originally presented at conference entitled 'Heritage in Southern and Eastern Africa: Imagining and Marketing Public Culture and History', Livingstone, Zambia, 5–9 July 2004. I wish to thank the Journal of Southern African Studies (JSAS), and the British Institute in Eastern Africa for their invitation and financial assistance to attend the conference. 1 Qassim Sultan is the current Director General of Dubai Municipality. His ideas are contained in a circular addressed to prospective participants of the 'First International Conference on Architectural Conservation: Between Theory and Practice' which was held in Dubai, 14–16 March 2004. Notes * This article was originally presented at conference entitled 'Heritage in Southern and Eastern Africa: Imagining and Marketing Public Culture and History', Livingstone, Zambia, 5–9 July 2004. I wish to thank the Journal of Southern African Studies (JSAS), and the British Institute in Eastern Africa for their invitation and financial assistance to attend the conference. 1 Qassim Sultan is the current Director General of Dubai Municipality. His ideas are contained in a circular addressed to prospective participants of the 'First International Conference on Architectural Conservation: Between Theory and Practice' which was held in Dubai, 14–16 March 2004. 2 P.S. Garlake, Great Zimbabwe (London, Thames and Hudson, 1973); I. Pikirayi, The Zimbabwe Culture: Origins and Decline in Southern Zambezian States (Walnut Creek, CA, Oxford and London, AltaMira Press, 2001). 3 J.T. Bent, The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland (London, Longmans Green, 1892); R.N. Hall, Great Zimbabwe, Mashonaland, Rhodesia: An Account of Two Years' Examination Work in 1902–4 on Behalf of the Government of Rhodesia (London, Methuen, 1905); R.N. Hall, Prehistoric Rhodesia: An Examination of the Historical, Ethnological and Archaeological Evidence as to the Origin and Age of the Rock Mines and Stone Buildings with a Gazetteer of Medieval South-East Africa, 915 ad to 1760 ad and the Countries of Monomotapa, Manica, Sabia, Quiteve, Sofala and Mozambique (London, Fisher T. Unwin, 1909); R.N. Neal and W.G. Neal, The Ancient Ruins of Rhodesia (London, Methuen, 1902); D. Randall-MacIver, Medieval Rhodesia (London, Macmillan, 1906); G. Caton-Thompson, The Zimbabwe Culture: Ruins and Reactions (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1931). 4 See, for example, R. Gayre, Origin of the Zimbabwean Civilization (Salisbury, Galaxie Press, 1972). 5 See, for example, Garlake, Great Zimbabwe, and R. Summers, Ancient Ruins and Vanished Civilizations of Southern Africa (Cape Town, TV Bulpin, 1971). 7 I. Pikirayi, The Archaeological Identity of the Mutapa State: Towards an Historical Archaeology of Northern Zimbabwe (Uppsala, Societas Archaeologica Upsaliensis, 1993); Pikirayi, The Zimbabwe Culture. 8 R. Summers and A. Whitty, 'The Development of the Great Enclosure', Occasional Papers of the National Museums of Rhodesia, 3 (1961), pp. 306–25. 9 K.R. Robinson, Khami Ruins (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1959). 10 Summers and Whitty, 'The Development of the Great Enclosure'; A. Whitty, 'Architectural Style at Zimbabwe', National Museums of Southern Rhodesia Occasional Papers, 23a (1961), pp. 289–305; D.P. Collett, A.E. Vines and E.G. Hughes, 'The Chronology of the Valley Enclosures: Implications for the Interpretation of Great Zimbabwe', The African Archaeological Review, 10 (1992), pp. 139–61. 11 T.N. Huffman and J.C. Vogel, 'The Chronology of Great Zimbabwe', The South African Archaeological Bulletin, 46 (1991), pp. 61–70. 12 See for example, Huffman, Snakes and Crocodiles. 13 T.N. Huffman, 'Ceramics, Settlements and Late Iron Age Migrations', The African Archaeological Review, 7 (1989), pp. 155–82; T.N. Huffman, Iron Age Migrations: The Ceramic Sequence in Southern Zambia – Excavations at Gundu and Ndonde (Johannesburg, Witwatersrand University Press, 1989). 14 O.S. Seda, 'Some Reflections on the Essence of Curvilinear Form in Shona Material Culture', in E.M. Chowome, Z. Mguni and M. Furusa (eds), Indigenous Knowledge and Technology in African and Diasporan Communities: Multi-Disciplinary Approaches, Southern African Association for Culture and Development Studies, University of Zimbabwe in association with the National Council for Black Studies, Inc. USA (Harare, Mond Books; California, Carson, 2000), p. 161. 15 Garlake, Great Zimbabwe. 16 Huffman, Snakes and Crocodiles. 17 Seda, 'Some Reflections on the Essence of Curvilinear Form', pp. 161–8. 18 See debates in D.N. Beach, M.F.C. Bourdillon, J. Denbow, M. Hall, P. Lane, I. Pikirayi, G. Pwiti and T.N. Huffman, 'Review Feature: Snakes and Crocodiles: Power and Symbolism in Ancient Zimbabwe by T.N. Huffman', The South African Archaeological Bulletin, 52, 166 (1997), pp. 125–43. 19 Garlake, Great Zimbabwe; Pikirayi, The Zimbabwe Culture; Sinclair, Space, Time and Social Formation; W. Ndoro, Your Monument, Our Shrine: The Preservation of Great Zimbabwe (Uppsala, Sweden, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University, 2001). 20 J. Fontein, 'The Silence of Great Zimbabwe: Contested Landscapes and the Power of Heritage' (PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh, 2003). 21 M. Hall, 'Great Zimbabwe and the Lost City: The Cultural Colonisation of the South African Past', in P.J. Ucko (ed.), Theory in Archaeology: A World Perspective (London, Routledge, 1995), pp. 28–45, M. Hall, 'The Legend of the Lost City; Or, the Man with Golden Balls', Journal of Southern African Studies, 21, 2 (June 1995), pp. 179–99. 22 K. Robins, 'Prisoners of the City: Whatever Could a Postmodern City Be?', in E. Carter, J. Donald and J. Squires (eds), Space and Place: Theories of Identity and Location (London, Lawrence and Wishart, 1993), p. 303. 23 K. Robins, 'Prisoners of the City: Whatever Could a Postmodern City Be?', in E. Carter, J. Donald and J. Squires (eds), Space and Place: Theories of Identity and Location (London, Lawrence and Wishart, 1993), p. 303 24 D. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity: an Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change (Cambridge, MA, Blackwell, 1990), p. 12; Robins, 'Prisoners of the City'. 25 D. Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity: an Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change (Cambridge, MA, Blackwell, 1990), p. 12; Robins, 'Prisoners of the City', pp. 306, 308. 26 Hall, 'Great Zimbabwe and the Lost City'; Hall, 'The Legend of the Lost City'. 27 Huffman, Snakes and Crocodiles, pp. 134–6. 28 Huffman, Snakes and Crocodiles, pp. 28–9, 57–9, 67–8, 89–90, 94–5, 100–1, 112–16, 133–34, etc. 29 See Birds' Eye View of the Lost City at Sun City/The Lost City Legends (Cape Town, NuMaps, [1992]1996). 30 P.S. Garlake, Early Art and Architecture of Africa (Oxford History of Art Series, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 153. 31 Personal communication, Dr Zororo Muranda, Dean of the Faculty of Commerce, Chinhoyi University of Technology, August 2004. 32 Personal communication, Edgar Nkiwane, curator of Militaria, National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe, Harare, 11 March 2004. 33 Garlake, Great Zimbabwe; Garlake, Early Art and Architecture of Africa. 34 Garlake, Great Zimbabwe; Garlake, Early Art and Architecture of Africa 35 The recovery of post-holes indicates that posts were set in a ring around the outside of the external walls of clay-built houses, demarcating verandahs of thatched structures, see for example, G. Caton-Thompson, The Zimbabwe Culture: Ruins and Reactions (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1931). 36 Garlake, Early Art and Architecture of Africa, p. 151. 37 Garlake, Early Art and Architecture of Africa, p. 152. 38 T.N. Huffman, 'Snakes and Birds: Expressive Space at Great Zimbabwe', African Studies, 40 (1981), pp. 131–50; T.N. Huffman, 'Expressive Space in the Zimbabwe Culture', Man, 19 (1984), pp. 593–612; Huffman, Snakes and Crocodiles. 39 D. Lowenthal, The Past is a Foreign Country (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1985). 40 D. Lowenthal, The Past is a Foreign Country (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1985) 41 G.J. Ashworth and P.J. Larkham (eds), Building a New Heritage (London and New York, Routledge, 1994); P. Fowler, The Past in Contemporary Society: Then, Now (London, Routledge, 1992); D. Horne, The Great Museum: The Re-presentation of History (London and Sydney, Pluto, 1984); D. Light and R.C. Prentice, 'Who Consumes the Heritage Product? Implications for European Heritage Tourism', in Ashworth and Larkham (eds), Building a New Heritage, pp. 90–116; P.T. Newby, 'Tourism: Support or Threat to Heritage?', in Ashworth and Larkham (eds), Building a New Heritage, pp. 206–28; J. Urry, The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in Contemporary Societies (London, Sage, 1990); K. Walsh, The Representation of the Past: Museums and Heritage in the Post-Modern World (London, Routledge, 1992). 42 Hall, 'Great Zimbabwe and the Lost City'; Hall, 'The Legend of the Lost City'. 43 Produced by Nickelodeon, Florida, Legends of the Hidden Temple is one of the most creative game shows ever shown on television. Six teams, each composed of a boy and a girl, compete to enter the sacred temple, guided by 'explorer' Kirk Fogg. The team that passes three physical and mental games qualifies to go into the temple to retrieve a treasure hidden in one of its rooms. The giant Olmec, who knows everything about its interior possessions and the legends accompanying each possession, guards the temple. 44 Pikirayi, The Zimbabwe Culture. 45 Pikirayi, The Zimbabwe Culture, pp. 213–14. 46 A tree outside is commonly, but erroneously, thought of as the site of her execution by hanging. Mbuya Nehanda was executed inside a prison, away from any public gaze. There has been some lobbying, by among others the Heritage Foundation, for the tree to be declared a national monument. The Zimbabwe Government allowed the building of the new RBZ on the site, provided there was some memorial to Nehanda. 47 I. Pikirayi, 'The Demise of Great Zimbabwe: An Environmental Appraisal', in A. Green and R. Leech (eds), Cities in the World 1500–2000: Proceedings of the Society for Post-Medieval Archaeology Conference, Southampton, 18–20 April 2002 (London, Maney Publishing, 2006). 48 Caton-Thompson, The Zimbabwe Culture.