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Islam in Mozambique: Some Historical and Cultural Perspectives

2008; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 28; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/13602000802548201

1469-9591

Sigvard von Sicard,

African history and culture analysis

Abstract Islam in Mozambique has a history that goes back to at least the tenth century. The records show that the region was known and well frequented by Muslim travelers and traders. By the middle of the fifteenth century, permanent and flourishing commercial and religious sultanates had been established along the coast and some had penetrated up the Zambezi. The arrival of the Portuguese introduced the centuries-long confrontation between Christians and Muslims. Prior to the arrival of the Portuguese, some Indians had found their way to the area. By the eighteenth century, Islam was well established and organized particularly in northern Mozambique. The turuq, through their networks, contributed to the growth of Islam. During the period leading up to independence in 1975, Muslims were organizing themselves into political action groups under the cover of social programs. In spite of this, Muslims experienced considerable difficulties during the early years of independence. From 1987, however, a gradual restoration took place. Notes A.M.b.M. Idrīsī, Nuzhat al-Mushtāq fī Ikhtirāq al-Āfāq [The recreation of him who yearns to traverse the lands], 548/1154, cited in G. Ferrand, Relations de Voyages et Textes Geographiques, Paris: no publisher, Vol. 1, 1913, p. 59; see also F. Storbeck, Die Berichte der arabischen Geographen des Mittelalters über Ostafrika [The accounts of the Arab geographers of the Middle Ages regarding East Africa], Berlin: Reichsdruckerei, 1913, pp. 42–50; G.S.P. Freeman-Grenville, ed., The East African Coast. Select documents from the First to the earlier Nineteenth Century, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1961, pp. 9–17; Martin Waldseemüller's huge map of the world in 1507 includes a sheet portraying Africa "according to the tradition of Ptolemy" but with the addition of the Portuguese discoveries, in R.V. Toley's Landmarks of Mapmaking, Ware, Herts: Wordsworth, 1989, p. 160, which has mon sanbiqui; Waldseemüller's map made for Ptolemy's Geographia of 1513 has mon mbiqui, in R.V. Toley's Landmarks, op. cit., p. 159. However Ortelius' map of 1570 has Mozambique marked for the hinterland. See R.V. Toley, Landmarks, op. cit., p. 162. M. Amra, "Islam in Southern Africa. A Historical Perspective", Paper presented at the Islam in Africa Conference, Binghamton University, 19–22 April 2001, p. 17; M. Fitzpatrick, Mozambique, London: Lonely Planet Publications, 2000, p. 12. An indication of this may be that Elton came across a settlement in the Quissanga area which he refers to as Dhubbai. See J.F. Elton, Travels and Researches among the Lakes and Mountains of Eastern and Central Africa, London: F. Cass, 1968, p. 229. E. do Couto Lúpi, Angoche. Breve Memória sobre Uma dass Capitanias-Mores [Angoche. A short memoir on one Capitanias-Mores], Lisboa: Ministério dos Negócios da Marinha e Ultramar, 1907, p. 276. The term monhé seems at times to have been used in respect of the Indian Muslims. See J.J.Gonçalves, "Influência ârabo-islâmica em Moçambique" [The Islamic influence in Mozambique], in O Mundo Arabo-Islamico eo Ultramar Portugues [The Arab-Islamic World of Overseas Portuguese Territories], Lisboa: Junta de investigacoes do ultramar, 1962, pp. 267, 280. Alpers, however, notes that the term applied to mixed Afro-Muslims, as opposed to Swahili, i.e. coastal Muslims. See E. Alpers, "East Central Africa", in The History of Islam in Africa, eds. N. Letzion & R.L. Pouwels, Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2000, p. 309; M.V. Jackson Haight, European Powers and South-East Africa. A study of international relations on the south-east coast of Africa 1796–1856, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1967, p. 39, for munhaes [soldiers] of the Monomotapa. N. Levtzion, "Islam. East Africa", in The Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. M. Eliade, New York: MacMillan Publishing Co., 1987, Vol. 7, p. 355. M. Newitt, "The Southern Swahili Coast in the First Century of European Expansion", Azania, Vol. 13, 1978, p. 116; J. dos Santos, Ethiopia Oriental e Varia História de Cousas Notaveis do Oriente [Eastern Ethiopia and various histories of notable things in the East], Evora: no publisher, 1609, p. 81. A. & B. Isaacman, Mozambique. From colonialism to revolution 1900–1982, Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1983, pp. 13ff., 17, 18, 21. M.D. Newitt, Portuguese settlements on the Zambezi, London: Longman, 1973, p. 208. Ibid., p. 198; J. Duffy, A Question of Slavery. Labour policies in Portuguese Africa and the British Protest, 1850–1920, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967, p. 67. At one time they attacked and scuttled an entire shipload of Muslim pilgrims. See P.B. de Rezende, "Breve trotado e epilogo todos os visoreys que tem travido no estado da India" [Brief treatise and epilogue on all the vice-realms which have existed in the Indian State], Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris, MS Portgugais No. l (no date). For the intolerant behavior of Fr. Joao dos Santos during his time in Mozambique between 1590 and 1592, see J. dos Santos, Etiopia Orientale, Lisboa: Bibliteca de Classicos Portugueses, 1981, Vol. 2, pp. 242ff.; P. Schebesta, Portugals Konquistamission in Sudost-Afrika. [Portugal's Conquest Mission in East Africa], St. Augustin: Steyler Verlag, 1966, pp. 93ff. The term mujoge often appears in J.F. Elton, Travels and Researches, op. cit., p. 30, without explanation. The term appears in M.V. Jackson Haight, European Powers and South-East Africa, op. cit., 1967, p. 314, as mujojo (Port.) and on p. 315 as mujujo (Engl.). Could it refer to a muyao? See R. Honwann, ed., The life history of Paul Honwana. An inside view of Mozambique from colonialism to independence, 1905–1975, with an introduction by A.F. Isaacman, Boulder & London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1988, which describes mudjodjos as Africans who had converted to Islam and were from Zanzibar, Pemba and the Comoros (p. 94). Documents on the Portuguese in Mozambique and Central Africa, ed. A. da Silva Rego, Lisboa: Centro de estudos históricos ultramarinos, 1971, Vol. 7, pp. 504, 505. G.S.P. Freeman-Grenville, "Mozambique" in Encyclopedia of Islam, second edition, Vol. 7, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1993, p. 245; J.F. Elton, Travels and Researches, op. cit., p. 206. Although Elton refers to Landolphia Kirkii, it is more likely that the creeper he refers to was the rubber vine, Saba Comorensis (Sw. mbungo). Quoted by R. Coupland, East Africa and its Invaders, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1938, pp. 183ff. Smee's, Owen's and others' indignation had to do with the trade itself and the treatment of captured people as chattels. E.H. Burrows, Captain Owen of the African Survey, Rotterdam: Balkema, 1979, p. 123. In Mesopotamia slaves from East Africa revolted in 696, and between 869 and 883 they threatened the Caliphate in Southern Iraq. The Portuguese shipped slaves to Brazil. See R. Oliver & G. Mathew, eds., History of East Africa, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963, Vol. I, p. 101. T.H. Henriksen, Mozambique. A History, London: Rex Collins, 1978, p. 17. J. Duffy, Portuguese Africa, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959, p. 37. E.A. Alpers, Ivory and Slaves in East Central Africa: Changing Patterns of International Trade to the Late Nineteenth Century, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1975, p. 92ff., referring to G.M. Theal, Records of South-Eastern Africa, London: W. Clowes, 1898, Vol. 5, pp. 124–126. See also A.A. de Andrade, Relaç[otilde]es de Moçambique Setentista [Descriptions of Northern Mozambique], Lisboa: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1955, p. 100, where the name is given as Baxira Mocalli (Bashir Musa Ali?). J.F. Elton, Travels and Researches, op. cit., p. 141. No author listed, "Inquérito em Moçambique no anno de 1573" [Enquiry into Mozambique from the year 1573], in Studia, ed. Alcantara Guerreiro, Vol. 6, no city of publication or publisher, 1960, pp. 7–19; António Gomes, "Viagem que fez o Padre António Gomes, da Companhia de Jesus ao Imperio de Monomotapa; e assistencia que fez nas ditas terras de algus annos" [Antonio Gomes, Travels made by Padre Antonio Gomes, Society of Jesus, to the Empire of Monomotapa and the assistance made in those territories in different years], Studia, Vol. 3, no city of publication or publisher, 1957, p. 241, referred to by M. Newitt, A History of Mozambique, London: Hurst & Co., 1995, p. 181ff. A. Lobato, Sobre Cultura Moçambicana [Regarding Mozambiquan Culture], Lisboa: Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos, 1952, p. 125. For reasons why Indian traders appeared in such numbers on the East African Coast, see E.A. Alpers, Ivory and Slaves in East Central Africa, op. cit., p. 90ff. Banian, Ar. banyan from Gujarati vaņiyo—man of trading caste. E.A. Alpers, Ivory and Slaves in East Central Africa, op. cit., p. 92. M.S. Alberto e F.A. Toscano, O Oriente Africano Português. Síntese chonológia da História de Moçambique [Portuguese East Africa. A chronological synthesis of Mozambiquan history], Lorenço Marques: Minerva Cantral, 1938, p. 58; E. Axelsson, Portuguese in South-East Africa 1600–1700, Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1960, p.182. E.A. Alpers, Ivory and Slaves in East Central Africa, op. cit., p. 93, referring to G.M. Theal, Records of South-Eastern Africa, op. cit., Vol. 5, pp. 143–145. E.A. Alpers, Ivory and Slaves in East Central Africa, op. cit., p. 93, referring to G.M. Theal, Records of South-Eastern Africa, op. cit., Vol. 5, pp. 155–158. E.A. Alpers, Ivory and Slaves in East Central Africa, op. cit., p. 94. Ibid., pp. 92–94; E.A. Alpers, "East Central Africa", op. cit., p. 305. M.V. Jackson Haight, European Powers and South-East Africa, op. cit., p. 45. A.A. Andrade, Relaç[otilde]es de Moçambique, op. cit., p. 97. M.V. Jackson Haight, European Powers and South-East Africa, op. cit., p. 79ff. E.A. Alpers, "East Central Africa", op. cit., p. 306 referring to J.J.N. de Andrade, "Descripçao da Estrada em que Ficavão os Negocios da Capitania de Mossambique nos Fins de Novembro de 1789 com Algumas Observaçoens, e refleçoens a causa da decadencia do Commercio dos Estabelecimentos Portugueses na Costa Oriental da Africa" [A description of the direction that had been taken by the affairs of the Mozambique Capital by the end of November 1789 together with some remarks and reflections on the cause for the commercial decline in the Portuguese establishments on the East Coast of Africa], in Arquivo das Colónias [Colonial Archives], Lisboa: no publisher, Vol. 1, pp. 75–96, 115–34, 166–184, 213–35, 275–88. M.D. Newitt, Portuguese settlements on the Zambezi, op. cit., p. 217; M.V. Jackson Haight, European Powers and South-East Africa, op. cit., p. 141ff. E.A. Alpers, "East Central Africa", op. cit., p. 306. The level of Muslim penetration may be assessed by the fact that the information most of the slaves imported to the Cape Colony at this time was from Mozambique and that it was at the Cape that they embraced Islam. G.M. Theal, Records of the Cape Colony, Cape Town: Govt. Printers, 1903, Vol. 6, p. 271, referring to a letter from the Earl of Caledon to Viscount Castlereagh dated 4 February 1808. E.do Couto Lupi, Angoche, Lisboa: Typographia do Annuario Commercial, 1907, p. 183; J. de A. Coutinho, Do Nyasa a Pemba [From Nyasa to Pemba], Lisboa: Typographia do Companhia Nacional Editora, 1893, p. 10f. F.A. Monteiro, "As communidades islâmicas em Moçambique: Mecanismos de communicação" [The Islamic Communities in Mozambique: Means of Communication], Africana (Porto), Vol. 4, 1989, p. 69. In 1866, D. Livingstone's Arab guide at Cape Delgado indicated that no attempt had been made to bring the Makonde into the household of faith although he noted that some Makonde slaves at the coast had become Muslims. See D. Livingstone, Last Journals, London: J. Murray, 1874, Vol. 1, p. 23f. Elton, while traveling in the area in 1875–1876, noted that Islam was established in certain localities. Some Makua chiefs wore kanzus even if they were not Muslims. See J.F. Elton, Travels and Researches, op. cit., pp. 171, 178, 197; J. de A. Coutinho, Do Nyasa a Pemba, op. cit., pp. 40, 42, 44; cf. J. Stevenson-Hamilton, "Notes on a journey through Portuguese East Africa, from Ibo to Lake Nyasa", Geographical Journal, Vol. 34, 1909, p. 525f. J.F. Elton, Travels and Researches, op. cit., pp. 171, 172. J. Duffy, A Question of Slavery, op. cit., p. 68. Ibid., p. 85 footnote; J.F. Elton, Travels and Researches, op. cit., pp. 206, 207, mentions that coffee grew wild on the mountains in the region of the Nkomburi (Mecuburi) River (Nampula Province) and was exported. In that area he encountered a "British protected subject from Cutch" who had been in the area for 14 years, i.e. since 1862. F. Desmaroux, "Informaç[otilde]es acerca da situação moral e religiosa e dos usos e costumes dos povos no meio das quais a Missão dos Santos Anjos é destinada a exercer a sua influência (Zambezi)" [Information regarding the moral and religious situation and the habits and customs of the people among whom the Holy Angels Mission is meant to exert its influence (Zambezi)], Boletim da sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa [Bulletin of the Geographical Society of Lisbon], Vol. 14, 1895, p. 680f. E.A. Alpers, "East Central Africa", op. cit., p. 311; A. Thorold, "Yao Conversion to Islam", Cambridge Anthropology, No. 12, 1987, p. 24. A.E. Alpers, "East Central Africa", op. cit., p. 311; M.G. Amaral, O Povo Yao - Subsidios para o Estudo de um Povo do Noroeste de Moçambique [The Yao People – Subsidy in regard to the study of a people in Northeastern Mozambique], Lisboa: Instituto de Investigação Cientifica e Tropical, 1990, p. 379; R. Greenstein, "Shaykhs and Tariqas: The Early Muslim 'Ulama' and Tariqa Development in Malawi (c. 1885–1949)", Seminar Paper, History Department, Chancellor College, University of Malawi, 1976/77, p. 22. R.C.H. Shell, "Islam in Southern Africa 1652–1998", in The History of Islam in Africa, eds. N. Levtzion & R.L. Pouwels, Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2000, p. 338f.; M. Brandel Syrier, The religious duties of Islam as taught and explained by Abu Bakr Effendi, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1971, p. vff.; S.A. Rochlin, "Aspects of Islam in 19th Century South Africa", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 8, 1936, pp. 213–221. J. de A.Coutinho, Do Nyasa a Pemba, op. cit., p. 46. G.S.P. Freeman-Grenville, "Mozambique", op. cit., p. 246. Ibid. F.A. da Silva Neves, Informaç[otilde]es á cerca da Capitania-Mór de Angoche [Information about the Capitania-Mor of Angoche], Moçambique: Impressa Nacional, 1901, p. 17. J.P. de Sampaio Forjaz de Serpa Pimental, No Districto de Moçambique - Memorias, Estudos e Consideraç[otilde]es (1902–1904) [Our Mozambique District – Memoirs, Studies and Considerations], Lisboa: no publisher, 1905, p. 75. Ibid., p. 158; E. Do C. Lupi, Angoche, op. cit., p. 176ff.; P.M. de Amorim, Districto de Moçambique—Relatorio do Governador (1906–1907) [The District of Mozambique—Governor's Report (1906–1907)], Lorenço Marques: Imprensa Nacional, 1908, p. 74. E.J. de Vilhena, Companhia do Nyasa—Relatorios e Memorias sobre os Territorios pelo Governador [The Nyasa Company—Reports and Memoirs Regarding the Terriories by the Governor], Lisboa: Typographia da "A Editoria", 1905, pp. 10f, 234f. A.H. Nimtz, Islam and Politics in East Africa: The Sufi Order in Tanzania, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1980, p. 60 A.P. de Carvalho, "Notas para a História das Confrarias Islâmicas na Ilha de Moçambique" [Memoranda on the history of the Islamic brotherhoods on Mozambique Island], Arquivo (Maputo), 1988, p. 61ff.; E.A. Alpers, "East Central Africa", op. cit., p. 311. Ittifāq > Ar. Ittafaqa – agree, conform wafiqa. Sadate >Ar. sàada—happy, prosperous, illustrious. Sadate comes from one of the plurals of "sayyid"; "sadat", which in Swahili, with its emphasis on open syllables, becomes "sedate", hence the name would imply "the Qadiriyya of the Masters". A.P. de Carvalho, "Notas para a História", op. cit., p. 63ff.; B.B. Joao, Abdul Kamal-Megama (1892–1966): "Pouvoir et religion dans un district de Nord-Mozambique" [Power and religion in a northern Mozambiquan district], Islam et Sociétés au sud du Sahara [Islam and Societies South of the Sahara], Vol. 4, 1990, p. 139ff. Zâwiya originally referred to the corner of a building, a small mosque, a prayer room. It then came to refer to a building or group of buildings of a religious nature. Alpers, referring to the case of Mtumwa bt. `Ali b. Yusufu of Nkhotakota, has suggested that women played a more important role in the spread of Islam through the turuq. E.A. Alpers, "East Central Africa", op. cit., p. 313. A.P. de Carvalho, "Notas para a História", op. cit., p. 60ff.; cf. A.P. Caplan, Choice and Constraint in a Swahili Community: Property, Hierarchy, and Cognatic Descent on the East African Coast, London: OUP, 1975, p. 94ff. Malaía would seem to indicate that the long white gown, known in Swahili as kanzu, originated among the Malay. Cabaia is the Portuguese word for a Turkish tunic. Cofió refers to the embroidered cap known in Swahili as kofia. A. Ennes, Moçambique: Relatório apresentado ao governo [Mozambique: Report presented to the government], Lisboa: Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa, 1913, p. 516. Ibid., p. 517. J.J. Gonçalves, "Influência ârabo-islâmica em Moçambique", op. cit., p. 274, quotes A. de Souza Franklin, A ameaça islâmica na Guiné Portuguesa [Regarding the Islamic threat in Portuguese Guinea], who estimated the Muslim population to have been approximately 66,000 in 1956. J. de Garcia Domingues, Influência Árabo-Islâmica no Ultramar [The Arab-Islamic Influence in our Overseas territories] (Estudos Ultramarinos. Revista do Instituto Superior de estudos Ultramarinos, Vol. 5, Nos. 1–3, 1955, p. 268) estimated around 60,000 Muslims in 1955. The general census of 1950 gave the figure of 598,767 Muslims, while A. da Silva Rego, Curso de Missionologia (Lisboa: Centro de Estudos Políticos e Sociais, 1946, as quoted in J.J. Gonçalves, "Influência ârabo-islâmica em Moçambique", op. cit.), estimated half a million in 1956. The January/February issue of Portugal in Africa (Catolicismo no Ultramar Portugues, Vol. 13, No. 73, pp. 51–62, as quoted in J.J. Gonçalves, "Influência ârabo-islâmica em Moçambique", op. cit.), calculated that there were half a million Muslims in the diocese of Nampula. O Missionário Católico [The Catholic Missionary] (2nd Series, Vol. 32, No. 31, July 1956), in an article entitled "Maometanos em Moçambique", quoted from a Fides report which referred to 563,000 Muslims in the diocese of Nampula. The Review of the African Clergy (Lorenco Marques, 1965, p. 258ff.) estimated over 100,000 in the Dioceses of Lorenco Marques, Beira and Quelimane (p. 258ff.). A.F.J. Peirone, "Importância do Estudo da Lingua e da Cultura Árabe para a Missionaçãao dos Indigenas Islamizados de Moçambique" [The importance of study of the Arabic language and culture for missionary work among the islamized indegenes of Mozambique], Garcia de Orta, Vol. 3, No. 4, 1956, pp. 371–381, gives the number as 700,000, in comparison with L. Massignon's and Pellegrin's estimates, which he quotes as 60,000 and 80,000 respectively; M. Brelvi, Islam in Africa, Lahore: Institute of Islamic Culture, 1964, pp. 539–543, gives the figure as 7%. E. Mondlane, The Struggle for Mozambique, Hamondsworth: Penguin Books Ltd., 1969, p. 39. In 1967, it was estimated that there were 900,000 Muslims in the coastal zones of Cabo Delgado, Mozambique and Zambezia. See T.H. Henriksen, Mozambique. A History, London: Rex Collings, 1978, p. 22, quoting A.B. Herrick, et al., Area Handbook for Mozambique, Washington, DC: US State Department, 1969, p. 110. The 1970 census gives the figure of 8,168,933 for the total population. J. Murray, ed., Cultural Atlas of Africa, Oxford: Phaidon Press, 1981, p. 199. See R. Ammah, "New Light on Muslim Statistics for Africa", Bulletin on Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa, Vol. 2, No. 1, January 1984, p. 18, gives the figure of 1,384,750, representing 13% of the total population of 10,375,000. The Islamic Forum for Africa map and calendar for 2001 gives the figure as 29%, with 5,184,599 Muslims in a population of 17,877,927. J.J. Gonçalves, "Influência ârabo-islâmica em Moçambique", op. cit., p. 276. Ibid., p. 281ff. Ibid., p. 277, quoting G. Cota, Projecto Definitivo do Estatuto do Direito Privado dos Indigenes da Colónia de Moçambique [A definitive project regarding the statutes of the civil law of the indigenes of the Mozambique colony], Lorenço Marques: no publisher, 1946. See also p. 280. J.J. Gonçalves, "Influência ârabo-islâmica em Moçambique", op. cit., p. 277. Referred to by E.A. Alpers, "East Central Africa", op. cit., p. 314, referring to Departamento de História, 1993, p. 49, in Archivo Histórico de Moçambique [Historical Archives of Mozambique], Maputo: Fundo Governo Geral, Caixa 2450, Vol. 1, p. 56ff. Ibid. E.A. Alpers, "East Central Africa", op. cit., referring to A.M. Pedro, "Influencias politico-sociais do Islamismo em Mocambique (Relatorio Confidential)" [Islamic politico-social influences in Mozambique (Confidential Report), Typescript dated 31 May 1961; Anonymous, "Islam in Mozambique (East Africa)]", Islamic Literature, Vol. 15, No. 9, 1969, p. 50. E. Mondlane, The Struggle for Mozambique, op. cit., p. 106. A. & B. Isaacman, Mozambique. From colonialism to revolution, op. cit., p. 73. See also M.D.D. Newitt, A History of Mozambique, London: Hurst, 1981, p. 131 and Branquinho, Prospecção [Prospectives], pp. 56, 81, 108, as quoted by E. Mondlane, The Struggle for Mozambique, op. cit. F.A. Monteiro, "As communidades islâmicas em Moçambique", op. cit., pp. 80ff., 84ff.; F.A. Monteiro, "Sobre a actuação da corente 'Wahhabita' no Islão Moçambicana: Algumas notas relativas ao período 1964–1974" [On the activity of the Wahhabi movement in Mozambiquan Islam: Some notes pertaining to the period 1964–1974], Africana (Porto), Vol. 12, 1993, pp. 85–111; O Islão, o poder, e a guerra (Moçambique 1964–1974) [Islam, Power and the War. (Mozambique 1964–1974)], Porto: Universidade Portucalense, 1993; E.A. Alpers, "Islam in the service of Colonialism? Portuguese strategy during the Armed Liberation Struggle in Mozambique", Lusotopie: Enjeux contemporains dans les espaces lusophones [Lusotopie: Contemporary risks in lusophone areas], Paris: Karthala, 1999, pp. 165–184. A.S. Farsy, The Shafìi Ulama of East Africa, ca. 1830–1970. A Hagiographic Account, Translated, edited & annotated by R.L. Pouwels, Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, 1989, pp. 99–102. F.A. Monteiro, "As communidades islâmicas em Moçambique", op. cit., p. 83. E. Mondlane, The Struggle for Mozambique, op. cit., pp. 120, 129. Ibid., pp. 128, 197ff. Ibid., pp. 130f. Ibid., pp. 175ff. "Bush" refers to "rural areas", commonly used in East and South Africa, e.g. bush station, bush school, etc. Ibid., pp. 54, 67; 2000 Annual Report on International Religious Freedom: Mozambique, available online at: , 01.02.01, p. 3; According to the 1997 census, Indians represented 0.08% of the population. See online . "Indians in Mozambique", Africa Today, Vol. 10, February 1963, pp. 12–13. J. Hanlon, Mozambique. Who calls the shots, London: J. Currey, 1991, p. 12. F. Constantin, "Mozambique: Du colonialisme catholique a l'état marxiste" [Mozambique: From Catholique Colonialism to Marxist State], Les communautés musulmanes d'Afrique oriental (Pau) [Muslim communities in East Africa (Pau)], No. 1, 1983, p. 89ff.; Anonymous, "Islam in Mozambique (East Africa)", op. cit. M. Hall & T. Young, Confronting Leviathan. Mozambique since independence, London: Hurst & Co., 1997, p. 86ff. See also R. Ammah, "New Light on Muslim Statistics", op. cit., p. 18. "Une-nos o amor a patria: Presidente Samora Machel aos dirigentes religiosos" [Love of the fatherland unites us: President Samoral Machel to religious leaders], Tempo (Maputo), No. 637, December 26, 1982, pp. 24–29; F. Constantin, "Mozambique: Du colonialisme catholique a l'état marxiste", op. cit., p. 93. M. Hall & T. Young, Confronting Leviathan, op. cit., p. 177. Quoted in ibid., p. 201. Ibid., pp. 200f. Quoted in ibid., p. 212. 2000 Annual Report on International Religious Freedom: Mozambique, available online at: www.state.gov/www/global/human_rights/irf/irf_rpt/irf_mozambique.html, p.1. Ibid., p. 2. Ibid., p. 2. See online: ; According to Impact International, Vol. 29, No. 11, November 1999, pp. 30–31, there were fifty-nine Muslim deputies in the previous government. Ibid., pp. 30–31; see online at: 01.02.01; 2000 Annual Report on International Religious Freedom: Mozambique, available online at: , p. 3. S. Siefert, "Muslime in Mosambik—Versuch einer Bestandsaufnahme" [Muslims in Mozambique—Attempt at stocktaking], Bielefeld: Universität Bielefeld Forschungsprogramm Entwicklungspolitik, No. 36, 1994. See online: The statistics show that in 1996, there were 216 pilgrims; in 1997, 154; in 1998, 200; in 1999, 309; and in 2000, 187 (Foundation of Pilgrimage for non–Arabic African Countries, Mecca). The lower numbers seem to coincide with periods of tension or natural disasters. 2000 Annual Report on International Religious Freedom: Mozambique, available online at: , p. 2. Ibid., p. 3.