Artigo Revisado por pares

Living systems: The group

1971; Wiley; Volume: 16; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1002/bs.3830160403

ISSN

1099-1743

Autores

James G. Miller,

Tópico(s)

Evolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation

Resumo

Behavioral ScienceVolume 16, Issue 4 p. 302-398 Article Living systems: The group James G. Miller, James G. Miller Provost, Cleveland State UniversitySearch for more papers by this author James G. Miller, James G. Miller Provost, Cleveland State UniversitySearch for more papers by this author First published: July 1971 https://doi.org/10.1002/bs.3830160403Citations: 15AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat References Notes 1 See J. Lipton. An exaltation of larks or, the venereal game. New York: Grossman, 1968. 2 Vinacke, W. E. The miniature social situation. Honolulu: Univ. of Hawaii, 1954, 14–15. 3 See A. P. Hare, E. F. Borgatta, & R. F. Bales (Eds.). Small groups. New York: Knopf, 1955, Preface (v). 4 Back, K. W. Influence through social communication. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1951, 46, 9–23. 5 Chappie, E. D. & Coon, C. S. Principles of anthropology. New York: Holt, 1942. 6 McBride, G. A general theory of social organization and behavior. University of Queensland Papers. Faculty of Veterinary Science, 1 (2). St. Lucia: Univ. of Queensland Press, 1964. 7 E. g., A. E. Emerson. The supraorganismic aspects of the society. Colloques internationaux du Centre de la Recherche Scientifique, 34. Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1952, 333–353. 8 Emerson, A. E. The organization of insect societies. In W. C. Allee, A. E. Emerson, O. Park, T. Park, & K. P. Schmidt Principles of animal ecology. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1949, 420. NOTE: For Emerson's view on cross-level analogies, see A. E. Emerson. The supraorganismic aspects of the society, Op. cit. 9 The supraorganismic aspects of the society, 10 The supraorganismic aspects of the society, 425. 11 Homans, G. C. The human group. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1950. See also K. W. Deutsch. Nationalism and social communication. Cambridge, Mass.: M. I. T. Press, 1953. 12 Newcomb, T. M. An approach to the study of communicative acts. Psychol. Rev. 1953, 60, 393–404. 13 Emerson, A. E. The organization of insect societies. In W. E. Allee, A. E. Emerson, O. Park, T. Park, & K. P. Schmidt. Op. cit., 424–425. 14 The organization of insect societies, 420–421. 15 The organization of insect societies, 424. 16 The organization of insect societies, 423. 17 Wynne-Edwards, V. C. Animal dispersion in relation to social behaviour. New York: Hafner, 1962, 284–7. 18 Washburn, S. L. & DeVore, I. The social life of baboons. Sci. Amer., 1961, 204 (6), 62–71. 19 Shaw, E. The schooling of fishes. Sci. Amer., 1962, 206 (6), 128. 20 Thines, G. & Vandenbussche, E. The effects of alarm substance on the schooling behaviour of Rasbora heteromorpha Duncker in day and night conditions. Anim. Behav., 1966, 14, 296–302. 21 Thelen, H. A. Methods for studying work and emotionality in group operation. Chicago: Human Dynamics Lab., Univ. of Chicago, 1954. 22 Homans, G. C. Op. cit., 90–94. 23 Bales, R. F. Interaction process analysis: a method for the study of small groups. Cambridge, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1950. 24 Thelen, H. A. & Whithall, J. Three frames of reference: the description of climate. Human Relat., 1949, 2, 159–176. 25 Guetzkow, H. & Dill, W. R. Factors in the organizational development of task-oriented groups. Sociometry, 1957, 20, 186. 26 Bavelas, A. Communication patterns in task-oriented groups. J. Acoust. Soc., 1950, 22, 725–730. See also H. J. Leavitt. Some effects of certain communication patterns on group performance. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1951, 46, 38–50. 27 Guetzkow, H. & Simon, H. A. The impact of certain communication nets upon organization and performance in task-oriented groups. Management Sci., 1955, 1, 233–250. 28 Shaw, M. E. Some effects of unequal distribution of information upon group performance in various communication nets. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1954, 49, 547–553. 29 Shaw, M. E. Some factors influencing the use of information in small groups. Psychol. Rep., 1961, 8, 187–198. 30 Psychol. Rep. 31 Bavelas, A. Op. cit. See also H. J. Leavitt. Some effects of certain communication patterns on group performance. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1951, 46, 38–50. 32 Shaw, M. E. Some factors influencing the use of information in small groups. Op. cit. See also G. A. Heise, & G. A. Miller, Problem solving by small groups using various communication nets. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1951, 46, 327–335. 33 Christie, L. S., Luce, R. D., & Macy, J., Jr. Communication and learning in task-oriented groups. Cambridge, Mass.: Research Lab. of Electronics M. I. T., Technical Report No. 231, May 13, 1952. 34 Bavelas, A. A mathematical model for group structures. Appl. Anthropol., 1946 -1948, 5-7, 7 (3), 16–30. 35 Leavitt, H. J. Some effects of certain communication patterns on group performance. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1951, 46, 38–50. 36 Bartlett, F. C. Remembering: a study in experimental and social psychology. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1932 & 1961, 63–7. 37 Thelen, H. A. Op. cit. 38 Chapple, E. D. The standard experimental (stress) interview as used in interaction chronograph investigations. Human Organization, 1953, 12 (2), 23–32. 39 Cherry, C. On human communication. Cambridge, Mass. & New York: M. I. T. Press & Wiley, 1957, 27. 40 Rapoport, A. & Horvath, W. J. A study of a large sociogram. Behav. Sci., 1961, 6, 279–291. 41 Dodd, S. C. Testing message diffusion in harmonic logistic curves. Psychometrika, 1956, 21, 203–205. 42 Glanzer, M. & Glaser, R. Techniques for the study of team structure and behavior. Part II: Empirical studies of the effects of structure. Pittsburgh: American Institute for Research. Contract N7ONR-37008, NR-154-079, June, 1957. 43 E. g., A. Bavelas. Communication patterns in task-oriented groups. Op. cit. See also R. D. Luce, J. Macy, Jr., L. S. Christie, & D. H. Hay. Information flow in task-oriented groups. Cambridge, Mass.: Research Lab. of Electronics, M. I. T., Technical Report No. 264, Aug. 31, 1953. 44 Heise, G. A. & Miller, G. A. Problem solving by small groups using various communication nets. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1951, 46, 327–335. 45 Christie, L. S., Luce, R. D., & Macy, J., Jr. Op. cit., 148–152. 46 Guetzkow, H. & Simon, H. A. Op. cit. See also H. Guetzkow & W. R. Dill Op. cit. 47 Shaw, M. E. & Rothschild, G. H. Some effects of prolonged experience in communication nets. J. appl. Psychol., 1956, 40, 281–286. 48 Christie, L. S., Luce, R. D., & Macy, J., Jr. Op. cit., 136–152. 49 J. appl. Psychol., 138. 50 J. appl. Psychol., 143–146. 51 Cattell, R. B. On the theory of group learning. J. soc. Psychol., 1953, 37, 27–52. 52 Cattell, R. B. Concepts and methods in the measurement of group syntality. Psychol. Rev. 1948, 55, 58–59. 53 Smith, K. U. & Kao, H. Social feedback: determination of social learning. In press, 1970. 54 Perlmutter, H. V. & DeMontmollin, G. Group learning of nonsense syllables. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1952, 47, 762–769. 55 Christie, L. S., Luce, R. D., & Macy, J., Jr. Op. cit. 56 Guetzkow, H. & Dill, W. R. Op. cit., 202–203. 57 Lanzetta, J. T. & Roby, T. B. Group learning and communication as a function of task and structure “demands” J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1957, 55, 121–131. 58 Rapoport, A. Some self-organization parameters in three-person groups. In H. Von Foerster & G. W. Zopf (Eds.). Principles of self-organization. New York: Pergamon Press, 1961, 1–7. See also M. Deutsch. Trust and suspicion. J. Conflict Resolution, 1958, 2, 265–279. 59 Altmann, M. Social behavior of elk, Cervus canadensis Nelsoni, in the Jackson Hole area of Wyoming. Behaviour, 1952, 4, 116–143. 60 Lorge, I., Fox, D., Davitz, J., & Brenner, M. A survey of studies contrasting the quality of group performance and individual performance. Psychol. Bull., 1958, 15, 337–372. See also J. P. Van de Geer, & J. M. F. Jaspars. Cognitive functions. Ann. Rev. Psychol., 1966, 17, 160–162. Rapoport, A. Group performance on a logical task under various experimental conditions. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan, Mental Health Research Institute Report No. 8, June, 1959. 61 Kelley, H. H. & Thibaut, J. W. Experimental studies of group problem solving and process. In G. Lindzey (Ed.). Handbook of social psychology. Cambridge, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1954, 735–7. 62 Strodtbeck, F. L. Husband-wife interaction over revealed differences. Amer. sociol. Rev., 1951, 16, 468–473. 63 Leavitt, H. J. Op. cit. 64 Guetzkow, H. & Simon, H. A. Op. cit. See also II. Guetzkow & W. R. Dill. Op. cit. 65 Shaw, M. E., Rothschild, G. H., & Strickland, J. F. Decision processes in communication nets. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1957, 54, 323–330. 66 Mulder, M. Group-structure and group-performance. Acta psychol. Amst., 1959, 16, 356–402. 67 Acta psychol. Amst. 68 D. Cartwright & A. Zander (Eds.). Group dynamics. Evanston, Ill.: Row, Peterson 1953, 536. 69 Carter, J. H. Military leadership. Military Review, 1952, 32, 14–18. 70 Hare, A. P., Borgatta, E. F., & Bales, R. F. Op. cit., 347. 71 Roethlisberger, F. J., & Dickson, W. J. Management and the worker. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1956, 522. 72 (A) Bales, R. F. In T. Parsons, R. F. Bales, & E. A. Shils (Eds.). Working papers in the theory of action. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1953, 111–7. (B) Carter, J. H. Op. cit. (C) Cartwright, D. & Zander, A. F. Op. cit., 25–26, 537–544. (D) Cattell, R. B. New concepts for measuring leadership, in terms of group syntality. Human Relat., 1951, 4, 161–184. (E) Hare, A. P., Borgatta, E. F., & Bales, R. F. Op. cit. (F) Homans, G. C. Op. cit., 188–189, 422. (G) Krech, D. & Crutchfield, R. S. Theories and problems of social psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1948, 417–7. (H) Wolman, B. Leadership and group dynamics. J. soc. Psychol., 1953, 43, 11–25. 73 Flood, M. M. A group preference experiment. Mathematical models of human behavior—Proceedings of a symposium. Stamford, Conn.: Dunlap & Assoc., 1955, 1–21. 74 Rapoport, A. & Orwant, C. Experimental games: a review. Behav. Sci., 1962, 7, 22. 75 Arrow, K. J. Social choice and individual values. New York: Wiley, 1951. 76 Ziller, R. C. Scales of judgment: a determinant of the accuracy of group decisions. Human Relat., 1955, 8, 153–164. 77 Bell, G. B. & French, R. L. Consistency of individual leadership position in small groups of varying membership. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1950, 45, 764–767. 78 Strodtbeck, F. L. & Mann, R. D. Sex role differentiation in jury deliberations. Sociometry, 1956, 19, 3–11. 80 Strodtbeck, F. L., James, R. M., & Hawkins, C. Social status in jury deliberations. Amer. sociol. Rev. 1957, 22, 713–719. 81 Barnlund, D. C. A comparative study of individual, majority, and group judgment. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1959, 58, 55–60. 82 Bevan, W., Albert, R. S., Loiseaux, P. R., Mayfield, P. N., & Wright, G. Jury behavior as a function of the prestige of the foreman and the nature of his leadership. J. public Law, 1958, 7, 419–449. 83 Kalven, H., Jr. Report on the jury project. In A. F. Conard (Ed.). Conference on aims and methods of legal research. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Univ. of Mich. Law School, 1957, 155–7. 54 Thurstone, L. L. & Degan, J. W. A factorial study of the Supreme Court. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 1951, 37, 628–635. 85 Robinson, J. A. Decision making in the House Rules Committee. Adm. Sci. Quart., 1958, 3, 73–86. 86 Arrow, K. J. Op. cit. See also J. C. Harsanyi. Cardinal welfare, individualistic ethics, and interpersonal comparisons of utility. J. polit. Economy, 1955, 63, 309–321. 87 Marquis, D. G., Guetzkow, H., & Heyns, R. W. A social psychological study of the decision-making conference. In H. Guetzkow (Ed.). Groups, leadership and men: research in human relations. Pittsburgh: Carnegie Press, 1951, 55–7. 86 Simmel, G. The sociology of Georg Simmel (Trans. K. H. Wolff). Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1950. 89 Stephan, F. F. & Mishler, E. G. The distribution of participation in small groups: an exponential approximation. Amer. sociol. Rev., 1952, 17, 598–608. 90 Slater, P. E. Contrasting correlates of group size. Sociometry, 1958, 21, 129–139. 91 Thrasher, F. M. The gang. Chicago: Chicago Univ. Press, 1927. 92 Bales, R. F. & Borgatta, E. F. Size of group as a factor in the interaction profile. In A. P. Hare, E. F. Borgatta, & R. F. Bales (Eds.). Small groups. New York: Knopf, 1955, 396–7. 93 Hare, A. P. A study of interaction and consensus in different sized groups. Amer. sociol. Rev., 1952, 17, 261–267. 94 Ziller, R. C. Group size: a determinant of the quality and stability of group decisions. Sociometry, 1957, 20, 165–173. 95 Taylor, D. W. & Faust, W. L. Twenty questions: efficiency in problem solving as a function of size of group. J. exper. Psychol., 1952, 44, 360–368. 96 Bass, B. M. & Morton, F. M. Group size and leaderless discussion. J. appl. Psychol., 1951, 35, 397–400. 97 Hemphill, J. K. Relations between the size of the group and the behavior of “superior” leaders. J. soc. Psychol., 1950, 32, 11–22. 98 Bales, R. F. & Borgatta, E. F. Op. cit. 99 Thomas, E. J. & Fink, C. F. Effects of group size. Psychol. Bull., 1963, 60, 371–384. 100 Whyte, W. F. Street corner society. Chicago: Chicago Univ. Press, 1943. 101 Hall, E. T. The silent language. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, 1959. 102 Simmel, G., Op. cit., 321. 103 Steinzor, B. The spatial factor in face to face discussion groups. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1950, 45, 552–555. 104 Hearn, G. Leadership and the spatial factor in small groups. J. abnorm. soc. Psvchol., 1957, 54, 269–272. 105 Bass, B. M. & Klubeck, S. Effects of seating arrangement on leaderless group discussions. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1952, 47, 724–727. 106 Strodtbeck, F. L. & Hook, L. H. The social dimensions of a twelve-man jury table. Sociometry, 1961, 24, 397–415. 107 Sommer, R. Leadership and group geography. Sociometry, 1961, 24, 99–110. 108 Strodtbeck, F. L. & Hook, L. H. Op cit., 414. 109 Thibaut, J. W. & Kelley, H. H. The social psychology of groups. New York: Wiley, 1959, 41. 110 Williams, R. M. The reduction of intergroup tensions. New York: Social Science Research Council, Bulletin 57, 1947. 111 Dubin, R. The world of work. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1958, 187. 112 March, J. G. & Simon, H. A. Organizations. New York: Wiley, 1958, 62. 113 Katz, D. & Kahn, R. L. The social psychology of organizations. New York: Wiley, 1966, 353–7. 114 Dubin, R. Op. cit., 235. 115 Lorenz, K. The social psychology of organizations (Trans. M. K. Wilson). New York: Harcourt, Brace, & World, 1963, 161–7. 116 The social psychology of organizations, 27. 117 Cramer, E. H. & Flinn, D. E. Psychiatric aspects of the SAM two-man space cabin simulator. Report SAM-TDR-63-27. USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, Aerospace Medical Division (ASFC), Brooks Air Force Base, Texas, 1963. 118 Psychiatric aspects of the SAM two-man space cabin simulator, 7. 119 Lorenz, K. Op. cit., 38–39. 120 Psychiatric aspects of the SAM two-man space cabin simulator, 38. 121 Psychiatric aspects of the SAM two-man space cabin simulator, 146–147. 122 McBride, G. Op. cit., 81. 123 Psychiatric aspects of the SAM two-man space cabin simulator, 86. 124 Guhl, A. M. The social order of chickens. Sci. Amer., 1956, 194 (2), 42–46. See also A. M. Guhl. Social inertia and social stability in chickens. Anim. Behav., 1968, 16, 219. 125 Masure, R. H. & Allee, W. C. The social order in flocks of the common chicken and the pigeon. Auk, 1934, 51, 306–327. 120 Allee, W. C., Collias, N. E., & Lutherman, C. Z. Modification of the social order in flocks of hens by the injection of testosterone propionate. Physiol. Zool., 1939, 12, 412–440. 127 Rapoport, A. Outline of a probabilistic approach to animal sociology: I. Bull. math. Biophys., 1948, 11, 183–196. See also A. Rapoport. Outline of a probabilistic approach to animal sociology: II. Bull. math. Biophys., 1949, 11, 273–281. Also A. Rapoport. Outline of a probabilistic approach to animal sociology: III. Bull. math. Biophys., 1950, 12, 7–17. Also H. G. Landau. On dominance relations and the structure of animal societies: I. Effect of inherent characteristics. Bull. math. Biophys., 1961, 13, 1–19. Also H. G. Landau. On dominance relations and the structure of animal societies: II. Some effects of possible social factors. Bull. math. Biophys., 1951, 13, 245–262. 128 Hanfmann, E. Social structure of a group in kindergarten children. Amer. J. Orthopsychiat., 1935, 5, 407–410. See also P. Deutschberger. The structure of dominance. Amer. J. Orthopsychiat., 1947, 17, 343–351. 129 McBride, G. Op. cit., 83. 130 Durkheim, E. Division of labor in society. (Trans. George Simpson). Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1933, 365–7. 131 Bales, R. F. Op. cit., 73. 132 Benne, K. D. & Sheats, P. Functional roles of group members. J. soc. Issues, 1948, 4 (2), 41–49. 133 Chappie, E. D. & Coon, C. S. Op. cit., 47. 134 Marquand, J. P. The late George Apley. Boston: Little, Brown, 1937. 135 Hawkins, C. H. Interaction rates of jurors aligned in factious. Amer. sociol. Rev., 1962, 27, 689–691. 136 Schachter, S. Deviation, rejection, and communication. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1951, 46, 190–207. 137 Hawkins, C. H. Op. cit., 691. 138 Zeisel, H. What determines the amount of argument per juror? Amer. sociol. Rev., 1963, 28, 279. 139 Cattell, R. B. Concepts and methods in the measurement of group syntality. Psychol. Rev., 1948, 55, 48–63. 140 Thibaut, J. W. & Kelley, H. H. Op. cit., 10. 141 Riecken, H. W. & Homans, G. C. Psychological aspects of social structure. In G. Lindzey (Ed.). Handbook of social psychology. Cambridge: Addison-Wesley, 1954, 786–7. 142 See N. Babchuk & W. J. Goode. Work incentives in a self-determined group. Amer. sociol. Rev., 1951, 16, 679–687. 143 White, R. K. & Lippitt, R. Autocracy and democracy. New York: Harper, 1960. 144 Bavelas, A. A mathematical model for group structure. Op. cit. See also A. Bavelas. Communication patterns in task-oriented groups. Op. cit. Leavitt, H. J. Op. cit. Shaw, M. E. Some effects of unequal distribution of information upon group performance in various communication nets On cit., 547–553. 145 Leavitt, H. J. Op. cit. 146 Bavelas, A. Communication patterns in task-oriented groups. Op. cit. 147 Leavitt, H. J. Op. cit. 148 Bass, B. M. & Leavitt, H. J. Some experiments in planning and operating. Management Sci., 1962 -1963, 9, 574–585. 149 Newcomb, T. M. An approach to the study of communicative acts. Psychol. Rev., 1953 60 393–404 150 Cartwright, D. & F. Harary. Structural balance: a generalization of Heider's theory. Psychol. Rev., 1956, 63, 277–293. 151 Harary, F. On the measurement of structural balance. Behav. Sci., 1959, 4, 316–323. See also Harary, F. Structural duality. Behav. Sci., 1957, 2, 255–265. 152 Bolt, R. A man for all seasons. New York: Random House, 1960, 120–7. 153 Festinger, L. A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press, 1957 188–196. 154 Shaw, M. E., Rothschild, G. H., & Strickland, J. F. Op. cit. 155 Festinger, L. & Carlsmith, J. M. Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1959, 58, 203–210. 156 Lewin, K. Field theory in social science. New York: Harper, 1951, 336. See also D. Cartwright. A field theoretical conception of power. In D. Cartwright (Ed.). Studies in social power. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan, Institute for Social Research, 1959, 188. 157 French, J. R. P., Jr. A formal theory of social power. Psychol. Rev., 1956, 63, 181–194. See also K. Lewin. The conceptual representation and the measurement of psychological forces. Contr. psychol. Theory, 1934 -1938, 1 (4), 1–247. 158 French, J. R. P., Jr. Op. cit., 184–190. [The postulates and theorems are like some hypotheses in the first article. I renumber the theorems to fit my exposition.] 159 Goldberg, S. C. Three situational determinants of conformity to social norms. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1954, 49, 325–329. 160 Festinger, L. & Thibaut, J. Interpersonal communication in small groups. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1951, 46, 92–99. See also L. Festinger, H. B. Gerard, B. Hymovitch, H. H. Kelley, & B. Raven. The influence process in the presence of extreme deviates. Human Relat., 1952, 5, 327–346. 161 Festinger, L. Informal social communication. Psychol. Rev., 1950, 57, 274. 162 Psychol. Rev., 271–282. NOTE: These hypotheses are quoted from Festinger, but renumbered and rearranged. The rearrangement follows that in H. A. Simon and H. Guetzkow. Mechanisms involved in pressures toward uniformity in groups, and Mechanisms involved in group pressure on deviate-members. In H. A. Simon (Ed.). Models of man. New York: Wiley, 1957, 115–130 and 131–144. 163 Simon, H. A. & Guetzkow, H. Models of man. 164 Back, K. W. Op. cit. 165 E. g., L. Festinger, & J. Thibaut. Op. cit. See also L. Festinger, S. Schachter, & K. W. Back. Social pressures in informal groups. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press, 1963. Also S. Schachter. Op. cit., 190–207. 166 Emerson, A. E. Populations of social insects. Ecological Management, 1939, 9, 291. 167 Rosenberg, S. & Hall, R. L. The effects of different social feedback conditions upon performance in dyadic teams. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1958, 57, 271–277. 168 Crutchfield, R. S. Conformity and character. Amer. Psychol., 1955, 10, 191–198. 169 Jones, E. E., Wells, H. H., & Torrey, R. Some effects of feedback from the experimenter on conformity of behavior. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1958, 57, 207–213. 170 Christie, L. S., Luce, R. D., & Macy, J., Jr. Op. cit. 171 Shaw, M. E. Some effects of unequal distribution of information upon group performance in various communication nets. Op. cit. 172 Leavitt, H. J. & Mueller, R. A. H. Some effects of feedback on communication. Human Relat., 1951, 4, 401–410. 173 Jackson, D. D. The question of family homeostasis. Psychiat. Quart. Supplement, 1957, 31, 79–90. 174 McBride, G. Op. cit. 175 Lorenz, K. Op. cit., 144–145. 176 McBride, G. Op. cit., 86. 177 Psychiat. Quart. Supplement, 103. 178 Emerson, A. E. Human cultural evolution and its relation to organic evolution of insect societies. In H. R. Barringer, G. I. Blanksten, & R. W. Mack (Eds.). Social change in developing areas. Cambridge, Mass.: Shenkman Publishing, 1965, 50–7. 179 Social change in developing areas 180 Lorenz, K. Op. cit., 157. 181 Scheidlinger, S. Psychonanalysis and group behavior. New York: Norton, 1952. 182 Schutz, W. C. FIRO. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1960. 183 Bales, R. F. Op. cit. 184 Sherif, M., Harvey, O. J., White, B. J., Hood, W. R., & Sherif, C. W. Intergroup conflict and cooperation. Robbers Care experiment. Norman, Okla.: Univ. Book Exchange, 1961. 185 Cattell, R. B. New concepts for measuring leadership in terms of group syntality. Human Relat., 1951, 4, 161–184. 186 French, J. R. P., Jr. The disruption and cohesion of groups. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1941, 36, 361–377. See also J. W. Thibaut & H. H. Kelley. Op. cit., 193–195, 258–259. 187 Thibaut, J. W. & Kelley, H. H. Op cit., 193–195. 188 Merei, F. Group leadership and institutionalization. Human Relat., 1949, 2, 23–29. 189 Rosenthal, D. & Cofer, C. N. The effect on group performance of an indifferent and neglectful attitude showed by one group member. J. exper. Psychol., 1948, 38 568–577. 190 Berkowitz, L. Sharing leadership in small, decision-making groups. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1953, 48, 231–238. 191 Schachter, S. Op. cit. 192 Back, K. W. Op. cit. 193 March, J. G. & Feigenbaum, E. A. Latent motives, group discussion, and the “quality” of group decisions in a non-objective decision problem. Sociometry, 1960, 23, 50–56. 194 Festinger, L., Pepitone, A., & Newcomb, T. Some consequences of deindividuation in a group. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1952, 47, 382–389. 195 Lundberg, G. A., Hertzlcr, V. B., & Dickson, L. Attraction patterns in a university. Sociometry, 1949, 12, 158–169. 196 Loomis, C. P. & Davidson, D. M., Jr. Measurement of the dissolution of in-groups in the integration of a rural settlement project. Sociometry, 1939, 2, 84–94. 197 Loomis, C. P. & Beegle, J. A. Rural social systems. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1950. 198 Hunt, J. McV. & Solomon, R. L. The stability and some correlates of group-status in a summer-camp group of young boys. Amer. J. Psychol., 1942, 55, 33–45. 199 Goodnow, R. E. & Tagiuri, R. Religious ethnocentrism and its recognition among adolescent boys. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1952, 47, 316–320. See also L. Festinger. The role of group belongingness in a voting situation. Human Relat., 1947–48, 1, 154–180. 200 Hughes, E. C. The knitting of racial groups in industry. Amer. sociol. Rev., 1946, 11, 512–519. 201 Roethlisberger, F. J. & Dickson, W. J. Op. cit. 202 Marschak, J. Towards an economic theory of organization and information. Cowles Commission Papers, New Series, No. 95. Chicago, Ill.: Univ. of Chicago, Cowles Commission for Research in Economics, 1954. 203 Simmel, G. Op. cit. 204 Mills, T. M. Power relations in three-person groups. Amer. sociol. Rev., 1953, 18, 351–357. 205 Mills, T. M., Gauslaa, A., Løchen, Y., Mathiesen, T., Nørstebø, G., Ramsøy, O., Shirbekk, S., Skårdal, O., Torgersen, L.,. Tysnes, B., & øyen, O. Group structure and the newcomer: an experimental study of group expansion. Oslo: Oslo Univ. Press, 1957. 206 Hoffman, P. J., Festinger, L., & Lawrence, D. H. Tendencies toward group comparability in competitive bargaining. In R. M. Thrall, C. H. Coombs, & R. L. Davis (Eds.). Decision processes. New York: Wiley, 1954, 231–7. 207 Wilson, K. V. & Bixenstine, V. E. Forms of social control in two-person, two-choice games. Behav. Sci., 1962, 7, 92–102. 208 Rapoport, A. Some game-theoretical aspects of parasitism and symbiosis. Bull. math. Biophys., 1956, 18, 15–30. See also C. Foster & A. Rapoport. Parasitism and symbiosis in an N-person non-constant-sum continuous game. Bull. math. Biophys., 1956, 18, 219–231. 209 Rapoport, A. Fights, games, and debates. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Univ. of Mich. Press, 1960, 173. 210 Scodel, A., Minas, J. S., Ratoosh, P., & Lipetz, M. Some descriptive aspects of two-person non-zero-sum games. J. Conflict Resolut., 1959, 3, 114–119. 211 Minas, J. S., Scodel, A., Marlowe, D., & Rawson, H. Some descriptive aspects of two-person non-zero-sum games. II. J. Conflict Resolut., 1960, 4, 193–197. 212 Deutsch, M. The effect of motivational orientation upon threat and suspicion. Human Relat., 1960, 13, 123–139. 213 Deutsch, M. Trust, trustworthiness and the F scale. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1960, 61, 138–140. 214 Lutzker, D. R. Internationalism as a predictor of cooperative behavior. J. Conflict Resolut., 1960, 4, 426–430. 215 Rapoport, A., Chammah, A., Dwyer, J., & Gyr, J. Three-person non-zero-sum non-negotiable games. Behav. Sci., 1962, 7, 38–58. 216 See L. S. Shapley. Simple games: an outline of the descriptive theory. Behav. Sci., 1962, 7, 59–66. 217 NOTE: This section was written before I read a paper with interesting similarities: Hill, R. Generic features of families under stress. In H. J. Parad (Ed.). Crisis intervention: selected readings. New York: Family Service Association of America, 1965, 32–7. His concepts have been applied, in an approach based on Gerald Caplan's work in public health and my general systems behavior theory, in W. M. Bolman (Ed.). Preventive psychiatry for the family: theory, approaches, and programs. Amer. J. Psychiat., 1968, 125, 458–471. 218 Byron, Lord G. G. Don Juan. Canto 2 LVILXXXII. In L. I. Bredvold (Ed.). Byron, Lord. Don Juan and other satirical poems. New York: Odyssey Press, 1935, 241–7. 219 Jackson, D. D. Op. cit. 220 Byron, Lord. Don Juan and other satirical poems, 85. 221 Cattell, R. B. Concepts and methods in the measurement of group syntality. Op cit. 222 Blake, R. R. & Brehm, J. W. The use of tape recording to simulate a group atmosphere. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1954, 49, 311–313. 223 Sherif, M. A study of some social factors in perception. Arch. Psychol., 1935, No. 187. 224 Rainio, K. A stochastic model of social interaction. Transactions of the Westermarck Society. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1961, 7, 15. 225 Gullahorn, J. T. & Gullahorn, J. E. A computer model of elementary social behavior. Behav. Sci. 1963, 8, 354–362. 226 Homans, G. C. Social behavior: its elementary forms. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1961, 53–55, 75. Quoted material in the original was capitalized throughout. 227 Blau, P. M. The dynamics of bureaucracy ( Rev. ed.). Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press 1963. 228 Newell, A. Information processing language-V manual. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1961. 229 Gullahorn, J. T. & Gullahorn, J. E. Op cit., 362. 230 McWhinney, W. H. Simulating the communication network experiments. Behav. Sci., 1964, 9, 80–84. 231 Behav. Sci., 83. Citing Literature Volume16, Issue4July 1971Pages 302-398 ReferencesRelatedInformation

Referência(s)