Thrombosis of Vein Grafts
2003; Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; Volume: 92; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1161/01.res.0000052828.62011.3c
ISSN1524-4571
Autores Tópico(s)Atrial Fibrillation Management and Outcomes
ResumoHomeCirculation ResearchVol. 92, No. 1Thrombosis of Vein Grafts Free AccessEditorialPDF/EPUBAboutView PDFView EPUBSections ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload citationsTrack citationsPermissions ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InMendeleyReddit Jump toFree AccessEditorialPDF/EPUBThrombosis of Vein GraftsWall Tension Restrains Thrombomodulin Expression Steven R. Lentz Steven R. LentzSteven R. Lentz From the Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa, and Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Iowa City, Iowa. Originally published10 Jan 2003https://doi.org/10.1161/01.RES.0000052828.62011.3CCirculation Research. 2003;92:12–13Thrombosis is a major complication leading to early vein graft failure in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass surgery.1 Like thrombosis at other sites, thrombosis of vein grafts results from a failure of hemostatic balance, which is normally maintained by a complex series of coagulation reactions that involve both systemic and local factors.2 The endothelium contributes to local hemostatic balance by producing thrombomodulin, which functions as an essential cofactor for the activation of anticoagulant protein C3 and other antithrombotic molecules such as heparin sulfates, plasminogen activators, and nitric oxide. The antithrombotic properties of endothelium may become compromised when vein grafts are exposed to the high-pressure arterial circulation.As its name implies, thrombomodulin modulates the activity of thrombin from that of a procoagulant to an anticoagulant protease.4 When bound to thrombomodulin on the endothelial surface, thrombin is unable to generate fibrin or activate platelets but instead becomes a potent activator of protein C (see Figure). The activated form of protein C (APC) is an anticoagulant protease that selectively inactivates coagulation factors Va and VIIIa, providing an essential feedback mechanism to prevent excessive coagulation. Although activation of protein C in vivo is completely dependent on thrombomodulin, the efficiency of protein C activation is enhanced by another endothelial cofactor, the endothelial protein C receptor (EPCR).5 The clinical importance of the thrombomodulin/protein C anticoagulant pathway is underscored by the strong association between venous thromboembolism and resistance to APC caused by factor V Leiden.6Download figureDownload PowerPointLocal activation of coagulation reactions in vein grafts may lead to generation of thrombin. When thrombomodulin (TM) is lost from the endothelial surface, thrombin promotes thrombosis by activating platelets and cleaving fibrinogen to form fibrin clots. When bound to TM on the endothelial surface, thrombin is unable to cleave fibrinogen or activate platelets, but instead serves as a cell-bound activator of protein C. Activation of protein C is further enhanced by the endothelial protein C receptor (EPCR). Activated protein C (APC) functions as a feedback inhibitor of thrombin generation and also has potent antiinflammatory properties.In a recent article in Circulation Research, Rade and colleagues7 reported that endothelial expression of thrombomodulin, but not EPCR, decreased dramatically after autologous vein grafts were implanted into the carotid circulation of rabbits. The loss of thrombomodulin occurred rapidly, within two weeks of implantation, and was associated with an increase in bound thrombin activity. Reconstitution of thrombomodulin by adenovirus-mediated gene transfer prevented the increase in bound thrombin activity.7 A similar downregulation of thrombomodulin expression was observed in human saphenous vein segments placed under arterial flow conditions in an ex vivo perfusion system.8 Some loss of thrombomodulin activity may occur during harvesting of saphenous vein grafts, even before implantation in the arterial circulation.9Several potential mechanisms may contribute to loss of endothelial thrombomodulin activity in vein grafts. The decrease in thrombomodulin expression is temporally associated with a local inflammatory response,7 and transcription of the thrombomodulin gene is known to be negatively regulated by inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α or interleukin-1β.10 The EPCR gene is also downregulated by inflammatory cytokines; therefore, preservation of EPCR in the face of decreased thrombomodulin7 suggests that inflammation-mediated transcriptional downregulation may not be a major mechanism for decreased thrombomodulin expression in vein grafts. An alternative possibility is that thrombomodulin may be shed from the endothelial surface by proteases produced by activated leukocytes.11 It also is possible that mechanical hemodynamic forces related to shear stress and/or pressure-induced vessel distension may alter thrombomodulin expression on vein grafts.12,13In the current issue of Circulation Research, Sperry et al14 describe new experiments in which a rabbit jugular vein implantation model was used to investigate the mechanisms by which thrombomodulin is lost from vein grafts. To address the role of inflammation, rabbits were treated with vinblastine to render them severely leukopenic. Surprisingly, the expression of thrombomodulin protein and mRNA in vein grafts did not differ between the control and leukopenic animals. This finding suggests that the decrease in thrombomodulin expression in vein grafts was not caused by inflammation-induced downregulation of thrombomodulin gene transcription or leukocyte-mediated shedding of thrombomodulin from the endothelial surface. Instead, Sperry et al found that hemodynamic forces play a key role in regulating thrombomodulin expression in vein grafts. By comparing the effects of rigid external stents (which prevented distension of the vessel wall) with surgical manipulations that either decreased or increased blood flow, they demonstrate that wall tension is a major negative regulator of thrombomodulin expression. Interestingly, the level of expression of thrombomodulin was independent of blood flow or shear stress.14The findings of Sperry et al implicate pressure-induced changes in vessel wall tension, with concomitant endothelial deformation (strain), as a major regulator of thrombomodulin expression in vivo. This conclusion is somewhat discrepant from that of Gosling et al,8 who found that external stenting did not prevent the decrease in thrombomodulin expression that occurs within 90 minutes when human saphenous veins are exposed to arterial flow conditions in an ex vivo perfusion circuit. Additional studies will be needed to determine whether the discrepant results from these two studies are related to the use of different types of stents, the different time courses of the experiments, or species-specific differences in thrombomodulin regulation. More work also will be needed to define the molecular mechanisms responsible for inhibition of thrombomodulin gene expression.Regardless of whether inhibition of thrombomodulin expression is triggered primarily by endothelial deformation or other effects of high-pressure pulsatile blood flow, the experiments performed by Sperry et al14 provide strong support for the hypothesis that mechanical forces play an important role in the regulation of hemostatic balance in vivo. Endothelial expression of thrombomodulin is known to vary dramatically in different vascular beds,2 and it is likely that differences in wall tension contribute to this variability. Changes in wall tension also may contribute to altered thrombomodulin expression in atherosclerotic arteries. Expression of thrombomodulin is decreased in endothelium overlying human atherosclerotic plaques,15 and activation of protein C in response to infusion of thrombin is impaired in atherosclerotic primates.16,17 Vascular remodeling of atherosclerotic arteries, with attendant changes in wall tension and distensibility, may explain some of these observations.Is decreased thrombomodulin expression a major factor leading to vein graft thrombosis in patients undergoing bypass surgery? Although the work of Sperry et al14 clearly advances our understanding of the factors responsible for regulating thrombomodulin expression in vivo, a direct role for the thrombomodulin/protein C anticoagulant pathway in preventing vein graft thrombosis has not been established. If thrombomodulin does protect from vein graft failure, it could do so by inhibiting thrombin's procoagulant activities, decreasing local generation of thrombin, and increasing production of APC, which has potent antiinflammatory as well as antithrombotic properties (see Figure).10 Local overexpression of thrombomodulin through adenoviral gene transfer has been shown to prevent thrombosis in an animal model.18 It remains to be seen, however, whether gene therapy approaches will prove to be a viable clinical strategy for preventing thrombosis of vein grafts. Alternative therapeutic strategies might include the use of external stents19 or pharmacological approaches such as oral direct thrombin inhibitors20 or infusion of APC, which is now approved for use in patients with bacterial sepsis and disseminated intravascular coagulation.10The opinions expressed in this editorial are not necessarily those of the editors or of the American Heart Association.FootnotesCorrespondence to Steven R. Lentz, MD, PhD, Dept of Internal Medicine, C303 GH, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242. E-mail [email protected] References 1 Motwani JG, Topol EJ. Aortocoronary saphenous vein graft disease: pathogenesis, predisposition, and prevention. Circulation. 1998; 97: 916–931.CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar2 Edelberg JM, Christie PD, Rosenberg RD. Regulation of vascular bed-specific prothrombotic potential. Circ Res. 2001; 89: 117–124.CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar3 Esmon CT, Gu JM, Xu J, Qu DF, Stearns-Kurosawa DJ, Kurosawa S. Regulation and functions of the protein C anticoagulant pathway. Haematologica. 1999; 84: 363–368.MedlineGoogle Scholar4 Esmon CT. Thrombomodulin as a model of molecular mechanisms that modulate protease specificity and function at the vessel surface. FASEB J. 1995; 9: 946–955.CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar5 Taylor FB, Peer GT, Lockhart MS, Ferrell G, Esmon CT. Endothelial cell protein C receptor plays an important role in protein C activation in vivo. Blood. 2001; 97: 1685–1688.CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar6 Kearon C, Crowther M, Hirsh J. Management of patients with hereditary hypercoagulable disorders. Annu Rev Med. 2000; 51: 169–185.CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar7 Kim AY, Walinsky PL, Kolodgie FD, Bian C, Sperry JL, Deming CB, Peck EA, Shake JG, Ang GB, Sohn RH, Esmon CT, Virmani R, Stuart RS, Rade JJ. Early loss of thrombomodulin expression impairs vein graft thromboresistance: implications for vein graft failure. Circ Res. 2002; 90: 205–212.CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar8 Gosling M, Golledge J, Turner RJ, Powell JT. Arterial flow conditions downregulate thrombomodulin on saphenous vein endothelium. Circulation. 1999; 99: 1047–1053.CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar9 Cook JM, Cook CD, Marlar R, Solis MM, Fink L, Eidt JF. Thrombomodulin activity on human saphenous vein grafts prepared for coronary artery bypass. J Vasc Surg. 1991; 14: 147–151.CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar10 Esmon CT. New mechanisms for vascular control of inflammation mediated by natural anticoagulant proteins. J Exp Med. 2002; 196: 561–564.CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar11 Boehme MW, Deng Y, Raeth U, Bierhaus A, Ziegler R, Stremmel W, Nawroth PP. Release of thrombomodulin from endothelial cells by concerted action of TNF-α and neutrophils: in vivo and in vitro studies. Immunology. 1996; 87: 134–140.MedlineGoogle Scholar12 Malek AM, Jackman R, Rosenberg RD, Izumo S. Endothelial expression of thrombomodulin is reversibly regulated by fluid shear stress. Circ Res. 1994; 74: 852–860.CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar13 Takada Y, Shinkai F, Kondo S, Yamamoto S, Tsuboi H, Korenaga R, Ando J. Fluid shear stress increases the expression of thrombomodulin by cultured human endothelial cells. Biochem Biophys Res Comm. 1994; 205: 1345–1352.CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar14 Sperry JL, Deming CB, Bian C, Walinsky PL, Kass DA, Kolodgie FD, Virmani R, Kim AY, Rade JJ. Wall tension is a potent negative regulator of in vivo thrombomodulin expression. Circ Res. 2003; 92: 41–47.LinkGoogle Scholar15 Laszik ZG, Zhou XJ, Ferrell GL, Silva FG, Esmon CT. Down-regulation of endothelial expression of endothelial cell protein C receptor and thrombomodulin in coronary atherosclerosis. Am J Pathol. 2001; 159: 797–802.CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar16 Lentz SR, Fernandez JA, Griffin JH, Piegors DJ, Erger RA, Malinow MR, Heistad DD. Impaired anticoagulant response to infusion of thrombin in atherosclerotic monkeys associated with acquired defects in the protein C system. Arterioscl Thromb Vasc Biol. 1999; 19: 1744–1750.CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar17 Lentz SR, Miller FJ, Jr., Piegors DJ, Erger RA, Fernandez JA, Griffin JH, Heistad DD. Anticoagulant responses to thrombin are enhanced during regression of atherosclerosis in monkeys. Circulation. 2002; 106: 842–846.LinkGoogle Scholar18 Waugh JM, Yuksel E, Li J, Kuo MD, Kattash M, Saxena R, Geske R, Thung SN, Shenaq SM, Woo SLC. Local overexpression of thrombomodulin for in vivo prevention of arterial thrombosis in a rabbit model. Circ Res. 1999; 84: 84–92.CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar19 Izzat MB, Mehta D, Bryan AJ, Reeves B, Newby AC, Angelini GD. Influence of external stent size on early medial and neointimal thickening in a pig model of saphenous vein bypass grafting. Circulation. 1996; 94: 1741–1745.CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar20 Weitz JI, Buller HR. Direct thrombin inhibitors in acute coronary syndromes: present and future. Circulation. 2002; 105: 1004–1011.CrossrefMedlineGoogle Scholar Previous Back to top Next FiguresReferencesRelatedDetailsCited By Song J, Ma D, Liu X, Chen Y, Fang J, Lui V, Zhao S, Xia J, Cheng B and Wang Z (2018) Thrombomodulin (TM) in tumor cell differentiation and periphery blood immune microenvironment in oral squamous cell carcinoma, Clinical Immunology, 10.1016/j.clim.2018.02.011, 191, (27-33), Online publication date: 1-Jun-2018. WARKENTIN T, SHEPPARD J, SUN J, JUNG H and EIKELBOOM J (2013) Anti-PF4/heparin antibodies and venous graft occlusion in postcoronary artery bypass surgery patients randomized to postoperative unfractionated heparin or fondaparinux thromboprophylaxis, Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 10.1111/jth.12098, 11:2, (253-260), Online publication date: 1-Feb-2013. Carnemolla R, Greineder C, Chacko A, Patel K, Ding B, Zaitsev S, Esmon C and Muzykantov V (2013) Platelet Endothelial Cell Adhesion Molecule Targeted Oxidant-Resistant Mutant Thrombomodulin Fusion Protein with Enhanced Potency In Vitro and In Vivo, Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 10.1124/jpet.113.205104, 347:2, (339-345), Online publication date: 1-Nov-2013. Wang Y, Zhang D, Ashraf M, Zhao T, Huang W, Ashraf A and Balasubramaniam A (2010) Combining neuropeptide Y and mesenchymal stem cells reverses remodeling after myocardial infarction, American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology, 10.1152/ajpheart.00765.2009, 298:1, (H275-H286), Online publication date: 1-Jan-2010. Hammoud L, Burger D, Lu X and Feng Q (2009) Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-3 inhibits neonatal mouse cardiomyocyte proliferation via EGFR/JNK/SP-1 signaling, American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology, 10.1152/ajpcell.00246.2008, 296:4, (C735-C745), Online publication date: 1-Apr-2009. Campa V, Gutiérrez-Lanza R, Cerignoli F, Díaz-Trelles R, Nelson B, Tsuji T, Barcova M, Jiang W and Mercola M (2008) Notch activates cell cycle reentry and progression in quiescent cardiomyocytes, Journal of Cell Biology, 10.1083/jcb.200806104, 183:1, (129-141), Online publication date: 6-Oct-2008. Hassink R, Pasumarthi K, Nakajima H, Rubart M, Soonpaa M, de la Riviere A, Doevendans P and Field L (2007) Cardiomyocyte cell cycle activation improves cardiac function after myocardial infarction, Cardiovascular Research, 10.1093/cvr/cvm101, 78:1, (18-25), Online publication date: 1-Apr-2008. Heistad D and Chu Y (2007) Oxidative stress and the vulnerable plaque The Vulnerable Plaque, Second Edition, 10.3109/9781439804537-8, (67-73), Online publication date: 13-Jun-2007. Pasumarthi K, Nakajima H, Nakajima H, Soonpaa M and Field L (2004) Targeted Expression of Cyclin D2 Results in Cardiomyocyte DNA Synthesis and Infarct Regression in Transgenic Mice, Circulation Research, 96:1, (110-118), Online publication date: 7-Jan-2005. Kaplan D, Meyerson H, Husel W, Lewandowska K and MacLennan G (2004) D cyclins in lymphocytes, Cytometry Part A, 10.1002/cyto.a.20103, 63A:1, (1-9), Online publication date: 1-Jan-2005. Matsuura K, Wada H, Nagai T, Iijima Y, Minamino T, Sano M, Akazawa H, Molkentin J, Kasanuki H and Komuro I (2004) Cardiomyocytes fuse with surrounding noncardiomyocytes and reenter the cell cycle, Journal of Cell Biology, 10.1083/jcb.200312111, 167:2, (351-363), Online publication date: 25-Oct-2004. Perez-Terzic C, Behfar A, Méry A, van Deursen J, Terzic A and Pucéat M (2003) Structural Adaptation of the Nuclear Pore Complex in Stem Cell–Derived Cardiomyocytes, Circulation Research, 92:4, (444-452), Online publication date: 7-Mar-2003. Gorr T and Deten A (2008) Manipulating myocyte cell cycle control for cardiac repair, Cardiovascular Research, 10.1093/cvr/cvn241, 80:2, (161-162) January 10, 2003Vol 92, Issue 1 Advertisement Article InformationMetrics https://doi.org/10.1161/01.RES.0000052828.62011.3CPMID: 12522115 Originally publishedJanuary 10, 2003 Keywordsthrombomodulinvein graftendotheliumthrombinstrainPDF download Advertisement
Referência(s)