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Making Biology Learning Relevant to Students: Integrating People, History, and Context into College Biology Teaching

2008; American Society for Cell Biology; Volume: 7; Issue: 3 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1187/cbe.08-06-0029

1931-7913

Katayoun Chamany, Deborah Allen, Kimberly D. Tanner,

Nutrition, Genetics, and Disease

CBE—Life Sciences EducationVol. 7, No. 3 FeaturesFree AccessMaking Biology Learning Relevant to Students: Integrating People, History, and Context into College Biology TeachingKatayoun Chamany, Deborah Allen, and Kimberly TannerKatayoun Chamany*Department of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Interdisciplinary Science, Eugene Lang College, The New School for Liberal Arts, New York, NY 10011; , Deborah AllenDepartment of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716; and , and Kimberly TannerSan Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA 94132Published Online:13 Oct 2017https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.08-06-0029AboutSectionsView PDF ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmail INFUSING SOCIAL CONTEXT IN BIOLOGY TEACHINGIt is imperative that developmental biologists learn of the possible social consequences of their work and of the possible molding of their discipline by social forces. For today's biology students may be given more physical and social power than any group of people before them.– Scott Gilbert and Anne Fausto SterlingBiology is front page news, so it is important that we teach students to make connections between what they learn in the classroom and what they see in everyday life. As biology researchers, we recognize the negative implications of doing science in a vacuum as we are increasingly asked to communicate effectively with local and national legislators. As biology instructors, however, we may choose to teach biology devoid of social context, believing that students can make these connections on their own. But students model their instructors' behaviors, and follow their lead. If we integrate social issues into the biology curriculum, we model social responsibility for biology majors, and we demonstrate the need for biological literacy for nonmajors.With an ever expanding biology curriculum, some instructors may wonder how they will find space to bring in social issues, and what biological content may be omitted in the process. By strategically embedding social context into those topics that are traditionally reviewed in multiple biology courses we sacrifice little time and content, and allow students to reflect on that social context more than once. By extending the Biological Concepts Framework (Khodar et al., 2004) to issues of social relevance, we may improve student learning retention, since each concept has multiple points of entry, and therefore, multiple points of interest that can serve as avenues for the retrieval of information. Using real-world problems to thread a number of biological concepts together encourages students to move away from seeing biology as a collection of disparate concepts, subject areas, or chapters from textbooks that are far removed from society. This cues them to make connections to biology during their study of nonbiological disciplines. This approach leads to reinforcement of the social connection and to the development of a habit of mind that students can carry forward as they progress through a 4-yr curriculum and beyond.Recent reports on science education reform promote this pedagogical approach because it prepares students to grapple with the interdisciplinary nature of twenty-first century problems (National Research Council [NRC], 2005). Integrative learning is listed as one of four essential learning outcomes in the "Learning for the New Global Century report." The "Integrative Learning Project," initiated by the American Association of Colleges and Universities (AAC&U; 2007) and the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, provides practical resources for achieving these goals (AAC&U and Carnegie Foundation, 2007). This shift in emphasis from disciplinary to integrative learning stems from research in cognitive science that demonstrates how students' previous knowledge can influence how they organize and link new information, constructing "schemas" that are deeply rooted in personal and cultural experiences (Vygotsky, 1978; Ausubel et al., 1978; Lattuca et al., 2004). With this in mind, this feature first demonstrates the important connection between biology and social issues, and then examines how the history of biology can be used to infuse relevance into the biology curriculum.CONNECTING BIOLOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE TO SOCIAL ISSUESStories that focus on the people of biology remind students that biological research is a human endeavor and, like any other, is not isolated from politics, social norms, or the paradigms of the time. The following section demonstrates how familiar biological topics, such as sickle cell anemia, gene regulation via the lac operon, and energetics can be presented within their social contexts. These examples are followed by a summary of large-scale efforts and tables listing resources to assist instructors in this integration process.Sickle Cell Anemia: Multiple Points of ConnectionThough sickle cell anemia (SCA) is used to illustrate a variety of complex biological concepts in a variety of courses (genetics, evolution, biochemistry, physiology), few biology courses place this topic in broad social context. Developmental gene regulation, genotype–phenotype relationships, protein polymerization, cooperative binding, and balanced polymorphisms as they relate to evolution can all be illustrated using SCA as an example. But without the social context, students may leave the classroom with misconceptions about allele frequency and distribution, and believe that these concepts are of little importance in the real world. We can use the social history surrounding the development of the molecular diagnostic for SCA and its subsequent use in genetic screening programs in the United States as a vehicle to teach these biological concepts. By doing so, we strengthen the connection between these different biological concepts, and we also demonstrate how biology taken out of social context can lead to widescale social injustice.To understand how biology instructors might use SCA genetic testing programs to contextualize basic biological principles and concepts, we must first take a look at the social issues that have surrounded these programs. Legislation for SCA genetic screening has shifted over the last 40 years from mandatory state laws, to a voluntary national program, to genetic testing of employees by government employers without informed consent (Bowman, 1977; Markel, 1997). In all of these cases, the target population for screening is African American, despite the fact that the sickle cell allele is not restricted to this racially defined group (Markel, 1997). This misconception was furthered by statements made by President Nixon when he reasoned in 1972 that the National Sickle Cell Control Act was necessary to eliminate a neglected disease that "strikes Blacks and no one else" (Nixon, 1972; P.L. 92–294). Though the Black Panther Party fully supported the SCA Control Act, believing that it would promote better health in their communities, the Act resulted in mass discrimination against African Americans in the United States, many of whom lost health and life insurance, access to public schools, and jobs (Culliton, 1972; Bowman, 1977). This screening program serves as one of the best historical examples of a genetic test gone wrong and continues to haunt African Americans today, as it is maintained on the New York state marriage license application (13aa) and has surfaced in court cases surrounding genetic testing in the workplace (Bowman, 2000; Carroll and Coleman, 2001; Louisana State University, 1998; Norman-Bloodshaw v. Lawrence Berkeley Labs, 135 F3d 1260, 9thCircuit, 1998).Perhaps surprising to scientists is that Nobel Laureate Linus Pauling, one of the pioneers involved in establishing the first molecular test for SCA, was an advocate of the screening programs that resulted in discriminatory practices. Most scientists remember Pauling as a staunch dissenter of nuclear energy research because of its potential to cause human suffering. On the issue of SCA screening and family planning, Pauling believed here, too, that he could prevent human suffering, as demonstrated by the following quote: There should be tattooed on the forehead of every young person, a symbol showing possession of the sickle cell gene [so as to prevent] two young people carrying the same seriously defective gene in single dose from falling in love with one another.– Linus Pauling (Markel, 1997)To include Pauling's position in our teaching is important for a number of reasons. By acknowledging this history, we can examine how biological discoveries and their applications can be shaped by social prejudices of the time (Table 1, SCA). We also illustrate how Pauling's reputation as a scientist and, thus, a person of authority, was used by others to support a policy that resulted in social injustice. In asking students to analyze Pauling's quote, we encourage them to consider what role they will play in communicating and situating their work in the public domain. This is particularly important to the SCA case, as many healthcare providers were unaware of their misunderstanding of the molecular biology behind the SCA diagnostic, which resulted in miscommunication of disease status. This confusion was partly due to a shift from cytological screening to molecular screening via hemoglobin solubility assays. Because physicians were not accustomed to viewing phenotypes at both the molecular and organism level, nomenclature became problematic. The government, the medical community, and the general public began to conflate the carrier status of "sickle cell trait" with sickle cell disease (Markel, 1997).Table 1. Resources for the people of biologyWomen and Minorities in ScienceAfrican American Scientists. Science Update. AAAS. www.scienceupdate.com/spotlights/africanamerican.php (accessed 8 March 2008). Audio and print summaries of biographies.African American Scientists. The Faces of Science: African Americans in the Sciences. https://webfiles.uci.edu/mcbrown/display/faces.html#Past (accessed 8 March 2008). Database of individuals searchable by profession or name; biographies are short but list of references and video are rich.African American Female Scientists. Warren, W. (1999). Black Women Scientists in the United States, Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Collection of biographies.Biographies/Movies/Websites. Morris, T. E., and Gal, S. (2003). A Recipe for Invention: Scientist Biographies, National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science. www.sciencecases.org/sci_bios/sci_bios.asp (accessed 8 March 2008). Science case study that builds on education research (″Draw A Scientist″) and has links to many databases of biographies, movies, and websites.Biology/Politics. Brady, C. (2007). Elizabeth Blackburn and the Story of Telomeres: Deciphering the Ends of Chromosomes, Boston: MIT Press. Reviews Blackburn's contributions to biological research, her experience as a female scientist, and her role in the politics of stem cell research.Minorities in Science. SACNAS Biographies Project. Society of the Advancement of Chicanos and Native Americans in Science www.sacnas.org/biography/default.asp (accessed 8 March 2008). Collection of biographies designed for high school level; searchable by gender, ethnicity, name, or subject.Nobel Prize Women. McGrayne, S. (1993). Nobel Prize Women in Science. Their Lives, Struggles, and Momentous Discoveries, 2nd Edition. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=10016 (accessed 8 March 2008). Biographies of female scientists who make up only 3% of all Nobel Prize winners.SCA/Biochemistry/Biography. Eugenics for Alleviating Human Suffering. (1970). In: It's in the Blood! A Documentary History of Linus Pauling, Hemoglobin, and Sickle Cell Anemia. SUNY, NY, November. Special Collections, Valley Library, Oregon State University. Produced by Jason Hughson. http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/blood/narrative/page35.html (accessed 8 March 2008). Notes, excerpts, audio and transcripts from Linus Pauling's writings and presentations.Women In Plant Biology.www.aspb.org/committees/women/pioneers.cfm (accessed 8 March 2008). Biographies of female plant biologists; includes McClintock and Margulis.Women in Science. San Diego Supercomputing Center. Sixteen biographies that detail the personal journey of female scientists; includes Rosalind Franklin, Roger Arliner Young, and Mary Anning.Professional Societies and Award-Granting OrganizationsASCB Member Profiles.www.ascb.org/index.cfm?navid=79 (accessed 8 March 2008). Collection of member profiles dating back to 1992; includes both personal and career driving moments of success.Biology. Judson, H. F., Tobias, P., Rogal, L., Crick, F., Berg, P., Karn, J., Hodgkin, J., Tan, C., and Brent, R. (2002). Going Strong at 75. The Scientist 16, 16. www.the-scientist.com/article/display/12927 (accessed 8 March 2008). Collection of articles written by scientists about Sydney Brenner; traces his maturation as a scientist and influential leader of science.EMBO: Science & Society Interviews Archives.www.nature.com/embor/archive/interviews/2001.html (accessed 8 March 2008). Collection of 3–5 interviews each year since 2000 with prominent scientists speaking about the implications of their work and the role of science in a global context (must scroll down to Science & Society section).EMBO: At the Benches.www.embo.org/communities/benches.html (accessed 8 March 2008). Short essays outlining the lives of young scientists at different stages of their careers in industry and academia.Genetics Society of America: Conversations in Genetics.www.genestory.org/index.html (accessed 14 July 2008). Collection of biographies and film clips of geneticists interviewed by other geneticists.JBC: Reflections.www.jbc.org/cgi/sectionsearch?tocsectionid=Reflections (accessed 8 March 2008). Reflections are invited articles by respected biochemists that chart career trajectories.Microbiology. Meet the Scientists, Microbe World. American Society for Microbiology. www.microbeworld.org/scientists/interviews/Liis-annePirofski.aspx (accessed 8 March 2008). Fourteen interviews with microbiologists and researchers in public health.Nobel Prize.org.http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/articles/golgi/index.html (accessed 8 March 2008). Biographies and history of discoveries in science.PNAS Profiles.www.pnas.org/cgi/collection/profiles (accessed 8 March 2008). Collection of 139 scientists' profiles.The Scientist: Profiles.www.the-scientist.com (accessed 8 March 2008). Profiles of junior and senior researchers including personal insight; searchable by science journalist of the series, Karen Hopkin.These biological misconceptions serve as an excellent segue for class discussions or lectures focused on allele frequency, inheritance patterns, and genotype–phenotype relationships (Strasser, 1999). Students are often surprised to learn that the SCA allele can follow a recessive, dominant, or incomplete dominant inheritance pattern depending on the phenotypic assay (anemia, malaria resistance, or solubility, respectively). Reminding students that malaria acts as an environmental agent for the selection of the protective SCA allele reminds students that the distribution of alleles is not a result of race, but environment. Analyzing data from the hemoglobin molecular solubility test addresses the need for a full understanding of the genotype–phenotype connection and the need for appropriate nomenclature. This biological analysis of the SCA story teaches students to question experimental results and interpretations in the face of new knowledge and technologies. By integrating the biological and the sociological perspectives of the SCA genetic screening program, we make the biochemistry of hemoglobin and the genetics of β-globin meaningful both inside and outside the biology classroom.The Lac Operon and Energetics: The Evolution of New ProductsThe social history of SCA screening programs resonates with the diverse undergraduate population of the United States, but serves as only one example of how contextualization of biology curricula can be achieved. Another example that is pervasive in the biology curriculum is the lac operon. Though we ask students to understand the detailed regulation of this operon, its significance is often not clear for students, though many social connections exist. The high frequency of global lactose intolerance can serve as a jumping-off point for discussions about developmental gene regulation in the infant and the adult, different evolutionary outcomes for adult lactase expression based on the domesticated livestock practices of Northern Europeans and some African tribes, and the emergence of probiotic products designed to address the lactose intolerance phenotype of some individuals (Gibbons, 2006; Tishkoff et al., 2007; Stanford University, Human Biology Core Course, www.stanford.edu/dept/humbio/cgi-bin/?Q=node/177).By juxtaposing prokaryotic and eukaryotic lactase expression in this context, students gain a more comprehensive understanding of gene regulation and are less likely to confuse the two, or perhaps may even see where they share structural similarities (operons and miRNA precursor clusters). They will also learn that though prokaryotes and eukaryotes evolved different mechanisms of genetic control, human consumption of milk and probiotics can influence gene regulation (Enattah et al., 2002). Examination of these macro-scale environmental conditions highlights the intimate connection between genes and environment (Wade, 2006). This connection can be placed within the larger biological conceptual framework of combinatorial control, by revisiting SCA experimental treatments that exploit the natural developmental shift from β-globin fetal gene expression to adult β-globin gene expression. By juxtaposing the SCA and lactase examples, students become better able to recognize common themes such as environmental influence on gene expression and to consider different levels of environmental scale.Instructors could delve deeper into the social implications of biological knowledge by pointing to the recent development of DNA tests for lactose intolerance, or lawsuits brought against Dannon for false advertising associated with their probiotic yogurt products (Business Wire, 2008, Wade, 2002). Here, instructors can highlight the work of members of the American Society of Microbiology who released a report titled "Probiotic Microbes: The Scientific Basics" that was used in litigation against Dannon.This report illustrates the social responsibility of professional science organizations. Integrating the report into a biology curriculum allows students to explore the allegations from the biological perspective, provides them with an opportunity to apply knowledge learned, and encourages them to pay attention to the interplay between biology and society (Walker and Buckley, 2006).Another common biological subject area is energetics. Here, too, students may memorize the metabolic by-products of glycolysis and respiration, but never understand why these pathways are important to other subject areas such as oncogenesis. Instructors can point to the relevance of energetics by using a PET scan image to demonstrate how cells respond to their environments. Cancer cells devoid of blood-flow increase glucose uptake as they switch from respiration to glycolysis in an effort to compensate for the lack of oxygen and in response to the less efficient ATP production via glycolysis. Understanding why some tumors promote the development of blood vessels, while others do not, relates back to the relationship between genes and environment. Students can connect this material to the larger biological concept of environmental control of gene expression at yet another level of scale—that of the localized extracellular environment. The social connection can be extended by pointing to Judah Folkman's work on angiogenesis and the subsequent development of anticancer drugs based on this work (Wade, 1997).The above examples illustrate how biology instructors can take traditional topics and place them in historical and contemporary context, bringing in other important overarching biological concepts such as evolution and gene–environment interactions, while highlighting the work of significant figures in the field of biology.Large-Scale Efforts to Infuse Social Context into Biology TeachingA number of institutions have used the approach of highlighting the relevance of biology to everyday life in an effort to influence students' choice of majors and careers. Tribal colleges, such as Oglala Lakota College and the Universidad Metropolitana (Puerto Rico) were selected as Model Institutions of Excellence by the National Science Foundation (NSF), increasing their graduation of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) majors by 44% over a 10-yr period. This was accomplished by developing courses that orient the curriculum to local place and culture (Amber, 1998; NSF, 2007). In a similar effort, faculty at Evergreen State College, Longhouse, developed "The Enduring Legacies Native Cases" that have a strong focus on land rites, indigenous knowledge, and environmental sciences (Enduring Legacies Native Cases, www.evergreen.edu/tribal/cases/index.htm). Whittier College requires all undergraduates to complete a three-semester math and science sequence that culminates in a capstone course titled "Math and Science in Context," which is focused on global problems and prepares students to be informed citizen-leaders (Whittier College, www.whittier.edu/oldsite/science-math/default.htm). In 2001, an international effort to bring together scientists interested in connecting their work to societal problems was initiated by members of Science Education for New Civic Engagements and Responsibilities (SENCER). Members have developed model courses for majors and nonmajors that are disseminated through their website, a newsletter, faculty development workshops, and more recently through a fellows program (SENCER, 2008). Collectively, these efforts strive to produce citizen-biologists and galvanize students to take an active role in promoting biological research as they move through their careers (Table 2).Table 2. Resources for biology in social contextCase Studies, Problems, PedagogyCase Studies in Biology (book). Waterman, M. A., and Stanley, E. D. (2005). Biological Inquiry: A Workbook of Investigative Case Studies, San Francisco, CA: Benjamin Cummings. Collection of cases that place biology in context.Case Studies in Science (book). Herreid, C. F. (2007). Start with A Story. The Case Method of Teaching College Science, Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Collection of articles and strategies for teaching with case studies.Case Studies in Science (online). National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science. C. F. Herreid and N. Schiller, Directors, State University of New York at Buffalo Case Collection. http://ublib.buffalo.edu/libraries/projects/cases/case.html (accessed 8 March 2008). Clearinghouse for case studies organized by discipline and author; teaching notes, assignments, and password-protected answer keys provided.Problem-Based Learning (online). University of Delaware. Problem-Based Learning Clearinghouse. www.mis4.udel.edu/Pbl/index.jsp (accessed 8 March 2008). Clearinghouse for problems in social context.Science Education for New Civic Engagements and Responsibilities (online).www.sencer.net (accessed 8 March 2008). Collection of model course curricula, articles, newsletter, summer institutes, and regional conferences.BooksBioscience. Franklin, S., and Lock, M. eds. (2003). Remaking Life and Death: Toward an Anthropology of the Biosciences, Santa Fe: School of American Research Press. Collections of essays on various aspects of cell biology including apoptosis, transgenic organisms, cloning, genetic enhancement, biodiversity of microbes, and stem cell therapy.Developmental Biology and Genetics. Gilbert, S., Tyler, A., and Zackin, E. (2005). Bioethics and the New Embryology: Springboard for Debate, New York: Sinauer Associates. Companion text developed by Scott Gilbert and his students in freshman seminars at Swarthmore College; each topic is addressed by coordinating chapters that address the social and scientific perspectives.Genetic Nature/Culture. Goodman, A, Heath, D., and Lindee, S., eds. (2003). Genetic Nature/Culture: Anthropology and Science beyond the Two-Culture Divide, Berkeley: University of California Press. Collection of essays in anthropology and history focused on biodiversity in humans and animals, pedigree analysis, national genomic databases/informed consent/privacy, genetically modified organisms, and genetic enhancement.Genetics and Genomics. Wexler, A. (1996). Mapping Fate: A Memoir of Family, Risk, and Genetic Research, Berkeley, CA: UC Press. Memoir that details the story of Nancy Wexler's search for the Huntington's gene through the eyes of her sister Alice Wexler.Genomics and Art. Kevles, B., and Nissenson, M. (2000). Picturing DNA. www.genomicart.org/genome-toc.htm (accessed 8 March 2008). Book chapters address genes and justice issues using artwork from the ″Paradise Now″ exhibit, scientific summaries, and artist interviews.Genomics History and Social Implications. Sloan, P., ed. (2000). Controlling Our Destinies: Historical, Philosophical, Ethical, and Theological Perspectives on the Human Genome Project, Notre Dame. IN: Notre Dame Press. Collection of essays and responses from a conference at Dartmouth funded in part by the DOE ELSI in 1995.JournalsBiology and Medicine. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine. ProjectMuse. http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/pbm (accessed 8 March 2008). Interdisciplinary journal places subjects of current interest in context with humanistic, social, and scientific concerns; neurobiology, biomedical ethics and history, genetics and evolution, and ecology.Developing World Bioethics. Blackwell Publishing. www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=1471–8731 (accessed 8 March 2008). Journal dedicated to providing a more global view of bioethics; collection of freely available highlights; specific focus on HIV/AIDs, indigenous knowledge and resources, and cultural practices.Kennedy Institute of Ethics. The John Hopkins University Press. http://kennedyinstitute.georgetown.edu/publications/kie_journal.htm (accessed 8 March 2008). Forum for diverse views on bioethics, including feminist perspectives; includes ″Scope Notes,″ an overview with extensive annotated bibliography on specific bioethics topics; includes ″Bioethics at the Beltway″ for insider information on activities at the federal level; some volumes are dedicated to stem cell research as it relates to oocyte donation, cultural diversity, and public–private ventures.Science as Culture. New York: Routledge. Published four times per year; dedicated to the analysis of culture values as seen in facts, artifacts, processes, designs, weapons, and wonders from the field of science and technology; i.e., article by MacPhail on the Viral Gene provides a historical and cultural view of transposable elements in the human genome.SEED: Science as Culture. Seed Media Group LLC. http://seedmagazine.com/magazine/ (accessed 8 March 2008). Magazine that connects science to society and art; similar to Wired Magazine in format and contemporary coverage; includes ″Pharyngula″ column authored by PX Meyers and focused on evolutionary biology; includes ″Seed Salon,″ conversations between leaders in the field of science and art/design.Websites and VideoCell Biology. Chamany, K. (2004). Cell Biology for Life, New York: GarlandScience. www.garlandscience.com/textbooks/cbl (accessed 8 March 2008). Curriculum placed in contemporary and historical social context; primers linked to primary literature focused on stem cell research, botulinum toxin, and HPV and cancer; more resources listed in the references section of each module.Developmental Biology. Companion website for Developmental Biology textbook, Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. http://8e.devbio.com/keyword.php?kw=bioethics (accessed 8 March 2008). Collection of white papers on ethical and historical dimensions of stem cell research with videos and animations.Epigenetics. Ghost in Your Genes. (2007). NOVA/WGBH. Holt, S. and Paterson, N. www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/genes (accessed 8 March 2008). Freely available video clips focus on the role of social and environmental factors on gene expression and inheritance.Genetics. Dolan DNA Learning Center. Gene Almanac, Cold Spring Harbor. www.dnalc.org/ddnalc/websites (accessed 8 March 2008). Enhanced Eugenics Image archive; DNA from the Beginning History archive; link to genes and health; laboratory experiments focused on bioinformatics.Genetics and Identity. Genetics Identity Group. www.ahc.umn.edu/bioethics/genetics_and_identity/index.html (accessed 8 March 2008). Collection of case studies, papers, and resources that examine the use of DNA identification to establish inclusion or exclusion to a racial or cultural group.Genomics. Cracking the Code of Life. (2001). Produced by Arledge, E. and Court, J. NOVA/WGBH/Clear Blue Sky. www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/genome/program.html (accessed 8 March 2008). Freely available video clips that demonstrate the interconnection among genetic technologies, genomic knowledge, and applications in society.Infectious Diseases/Biotechnology/Indigenous Knowledge. Science and Development Network. www.scidev.net/en (accessed 8 March 2008). Collection of white papers on range of topics including neglected diseases, genetically modified organisms, regulation of biotechnology, conservation, and climate change; searchable by geographic area or subject.Public Health. Rx for Survival. (2005). Nierman, M., Senior Produ