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Prestige and lack of alternative: Denmark and the United Nations in the making

2004; Routledge; Volume: 29; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/03468750410004594

1502-7716

Norbert Götz,

European Union Policy and Governance

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes I would like to thank Bent Petersen, whose apartment I was allowed to use while doing research in Copenhagen, the Institute for International Studies (IIS) for the office and professional infrastructure, the ever friendly and helpful employees of the Danish National Archives, and last but not least Jens E. Olesen, Kristine K. N. Midtgaard and Poul Villeaume for valuable comments. The introductory quote is taken from: M. Koskenniemi, The Gentle Civilizer of Nations: The Rise and Fall of International Law 1870–1960 (Cambridge, 2001), p. 388. K. K. N. Midtgaard, Småstatens offensive magt‐ og sikkerhedsstrategi: En analyse af FN‐politikkens status og rolle i dansk sikkerhedspolitik 1949–65 (diss. manuscript, Aarhus 2003), p. 36; FN, verden og Danmark, Dansk udenrigspolitisk institut, ed. (Copenhagen, 1999), p. 49; P. Bonnén, De Forenede Nationer: Fra vision til virkelighed? (Aarhus, 1999), pp. 8, 40; cf. even P. Villaume, Allieret med forbehold: Danmark, NATO og den kolde krig: En studie i dansk sikkerhedspolitik 1949–1961 (Copenhagen, 1995), p. 97. B. Lidegaard, "'Vi opnaaede da, at København ikke blev bombarderet …' Tilpasningspolitik, samarbejdspolitik og ikke‐blokpolitik", In H. Dethlefsen & H. Lundbak, eds. Fra mellemkrigstid til efterkrigstid: Festskrift til Hans Kirchhoff og Henrik S. Nissen på 65‐årsdagen oktober 1998 (Copenhagen, 1998), pp. 673–691 (p. 683). M. Sørensen & N. J. Haagerup, Denmark and the United Nations (New York, 1956), p. 129; N. J. Haagerup, De Forenede Nationer og Danmarks sikkerhed: Træk af den danske udenrigs‐ og forsvarsdebat siden 1945 (Århus: Institut for Presseforskning og Samtidshistorie, 1956), pp. 21, 19, 23. M. Dau, Danmark og Sovjetunionen, 1944–49 (Copenhagen, 1969), e.g. p. 137. T. B. Olesen, "Danmark og den kolde krig 1945–69: Set gennem de seneste elleve års forskning", Historie, no. 1 (1995), pp. 233–260 (pp. 240–241). P. Hækkerup, "The Four Planks in Danish Foreign Policy", Danish Foreign Office Journal, no. 46 (1963), pp. 8–12; P. Hækkerup, Danmarks udenrigspolitik (Århus, 1965). Besides the above‐mentioned dissertation cf. also the articles: K. K. N. Midtgaard, "Dansk FN‐politik 1949–65: Småstaten Danmarks offensive magtstrategi", Den jyske historiker, no. 97 (2002), pp. 16–43; K. K. N. Midtgaard, Danmark og FN 1949–63: FN‐politikkens status og rolle i dansk sikkerhedspolitik (Århus, 1998); K. Kjærsgaard Nielsen (now Midtgaard), "Danmark og vetospørgsmålet i FN 1945–49", Historie, no. 1 (1997), pp. 1–31. Cf. Villaume, op. cit., pp. 744–745, 855–857. Cf. B. Jensen, Bjørnen og Haren: Sovjetunionen og Danmark 1945–1965 (Odense, 1999). Cf. C. Holbraad, Danish Neutrality: A Study in the Foreign Policy of a Small State (Oxford, 1991). Regarding conceptual history cf. R. Koselleck, Futures Past: On the Semantics of Historical Time (Cambridge, MA, 1985); M. Richter, The History of Political and Social Concepts: A Critical Introduction (New York and Oxford 1995); regarding the twofold meaning of the term United Nations cf. Haagerup op. cit., p. 15. Letter to Joseph C. Grew of 22.05.45, Rigsarkivet (RA1), UM, 119.B.2.a. B. Lidegaard, I kongens navn: Henrik Kauffmann i dansk diplomati 1919–1958 (Copenhagen, 1996), p. 649. Beretning til Folketinget afgivet af den af Folketinget under 8. Januar 1948 nedsatte Kommission i Henhold til Grundlovens §45, vol. 5: Udenrigsministeriet under Besættelsen (Copenhagen, 1948), pp. 218–219. J. Hæstrup, Secret Alliance: A Study of the Danish Resistance Movement 1940–45, vol. 2 (Odense, 1976), p. 211. RA1, Ambassaden i Washington (AW), Aflevering 1983, 11.C.3 and Aflevering 1964, 112.K.20 pk. 5. The United Nations To‐day and To‐morrow (London 1945), p. 2. It was, in fact, the British Government that showed greater inclination to accept the Danes as a formal ally than the US Government, who paid greater consideration to the Russian point of view (cf. S. Seymour, Anglo‐Danish Relations and Germany 1933–1945 (Odense, 1982) p. 208–212). Rigsdagstidende, Forhandlinger i Folketinget, vol. 96 (1945), pp. XI & col. 10, 13. RA, Ministermøder, vol. 2, Cabinet Buhl May 1945 – November 1945 (entry of 12.05.45); regarding the problematic implementation cf. Lidegaard, op. cit., p. 356. Copy of a letter to E. Reventlow of 18.03.45, RA, Ambassaden i Stockholm (AS), Aflevering 1962, 6.G.5.d. Letter to J. C. Grew of 22.05.45, RA, UM, 119.B.2.a (the quoted section, however, continues in general terms "which have made the cause of freedom and justice their cause"); cf. already Kauffmann's telegram to the Danish Legation in Stockholm of 06.05.45, RA, AS, Aflevering 1962, 6.G.5.d. According to Foreign Minister Christmas Møller the decision to point to Kauffmann's declaration and ask for admittance to the United Nations was "one of" the new government's first decisions (Rigsdagstidende, Forhandlingerne i Landstinget, vol. 96 (1945), col. 758). One of the San Francisco delegates in a newspaper article also speaks of "one of the Danish Governments first decisions after the liberation" (E. Husfeldt, "Rapporter fra San Francisco", Information (03.08.45)). The same holds true for the article "Danish Adherence to Various International Agreements", Danish Foreign Office Journal, no. 2 (1946), p. 18. There is no reference to this decision in the minutes of the cabinet meeting (RA, Ministermøder, vol. 2, Cabinet Buhl May 1945 – November 1945). Copy of the speech of 08.06.45 [on the copy wrongly dated 07.06.45], RA, AW, Aflevering 1964, 11.B.17/1. "Danes not to seek regional treaties", New York Times (07.06.45). Telegram received by the State Department for minister Kauffmann from Minister Schou on 18.09.44, Telegram Kauffmann to Skov of 03.10.44, Letter Kauffmann to Lauritz Melchior of 11.10.44, RA, AW, Aflevering 1983, 11.C.3. S. Grafström, Anteckningar 1945–1954 (Stockholm, 1989), p. 667–668 (entry for 26.05.45). Kauffmann's report of 12.07.45, RA, AW, Aflevering 1964, 11.B.17/1. Kauffmann's radio speech to Denmark after the end of the San Francisco Conference, Letter to J. A. Parris (Associated Press) of 19.06.45, RA, AW, Aflevering 1964, 11.B.17/1. Note of 07.10.45, RA, Udenrigsministeriet 1946–72 (UM), 119.B.2.c pk. 1. Memorandum by Kauffmann of 19.01.47, RA, UM, 119.D.1.a, pk. 1. Kauffmann quoted in a letter of Borberg to Hvass of 02.01.48, RA, UM, 119.D.4. See e.g. Politiken (19.07.40). See the different memoranda in RA, Udenrigsministeriet 1909–1945 (UM 1909–45), 11.D.1. Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung(20.07.40). Quote: Report from the Special Commitee on Contributions (22.03.41), Document C.24.M.21.1941. Quote: "Joint Declaration by the President of the United States and the Prime Minister of Great Britain (Atlantic Charter)", F. Knipping, H. v. Mangoldt & V. Rittberger, eds. The United Nations System and its Predecessors, vol. 1,1: United Nations, (Munich, 1996), p. 4. RA, UM 1909–45, 5.E.57.c. Note of A. Serup of 13.09.44, RA, UM 1909–45, 5.E.57.c. Cohn was of Jewish background and had escaped from Denmark in the wake of the German plans for deportation of the Danish Jews; cf. P. Munch, Erindringer: Optegnelser fra og om besættelsestiden 1942–1947 (Copenhagen, 1967), p. 232. Confidential letter of E. v. Post to Ö. Undén of 13.12.44 and Copy of Kruses inquiry, Riksarkivet Stockholm (RAS), Utrikesdepartementet, 1920 års dossiersystem (UD), vol. 1166. Comment on the Dumbarton Oaks proposal of 22.03.45, RA, AW, Aflevering 1983, 11.C.3. Remarkably, this memorandum neither seems to be preserved in the archive of the Foreign Ministry nor in the archive of the Legation in Stockholm. It does not seem to be referred to in any other document, either. On Cohn's responsibility for the report of 1920 see P. Munch, Erindringer, vol. 4: 1918–1924: Freden, Genforeningen og de første efterkrigsaar (Copenhagen, 1963), p. 144. Letter J. Rechendorff, Legation Mexico, to C. A. C. Brun, Legation Washington, of 13.01.45, RA, AW, Aflevering 1983, 11.C.3. "Bemærkninger til Dumbarton Oaks Udkastet" (22.03.45), RA, AW, Aflevering 1983, 11.C.3. Cf. G. Cohn, Neo‐Neutrality (New York, 1939). Ibid. G. Cohn, Kan Krig forhindres? En ny Videnskab, (Copenhagen, 1945), p. 186. Minutes of the delegation meeting of 25.10.46, RA, UM, 119.H.2.b/46. See RA, UM, 119.B.2.a. F. T. B. Friis, "Den nye Fredsorganisation grundlægges: San Franciso‐Konferencen April–Juni 1945", Økonomi og Politik, vol. 19 (1945), pp. 91–106 (pp. 105–106). Ibid. Draft of 02.09.46, RA, UM, 119.H.2.b/46. The three Danish delegates were supported by a technical advisor and two secretaries, the technical advisor, Consul General to San Francisco, A. Sporon Fiedler also took part in the committee‐work – this can be compared to the Norwegian delegation with in all 22 members cf. H. Frisch & E. Husfeldt, Rapporter fra de delegerede ved Forenede Nationers konference i San Francisco (Copenhagen, 1945), pp. 6, 19. Regarding compensation and accommodation cf. Letter of Kauffmann to the Foreign Ministry 26.07.45, RA, UM, 119.B.2.e. While the daily compensation for the Norwegian participants in the conference was $11.36, the Danish delegates only received $8.00; as to the tradition of first class accommodation in Geneva see Munch, op. cit., p. 241. Letter Borberg to Hvass of 16.12.45, RA, UM, 119.B.2.g. "Sovjet foretrækker nu København som Verdenshovedstad", Nationaltidende (09.12.45). Memorandum by Kauffmann of 19.01.47, RA, UM, 119.D.1.a, pk. 1. Letter Borberg to Hvass of 02.01.48, RA, UM, 119.D.4. Letter retd. Minister N. Høst to Kauffmann of 30.10.45, RA, AW, Aflevering 1957, 11.C.4/2. See RA, UM, 119.D.1.a. N. Svenningsen, "Tidsrummet 1919–1961", In Den danske udenrigstjeneste 1770–1970, vol. 2: 1919–1970 (København, 1970), pp. 1–361 (here 244–245). E. Reventlow, I dansk tjeneste (Copenhagen, 1956), p. 184. Quote: J. L. Gormly, The Collapse of the Grand Alliance 1945–1948 (Baton Rouge, 1987), p.18. Cf. J. Kane, The Politics of Moral Capital (Cambridge, 2001). For the resistance movement see the manifest of Denmark's Freedom Council of December 1944; a joint approach directed to the governments of Great Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union to be recognized "as an Ally at war" was undertaken by the Danish Freedom Council and the four cooperating parties on 03.01.45 (both documents in: J. Hæstrup, Secret Alliance: A Study of the Danish Resistance Movement 1940–45, vol. 3 (Odense, 1977), pp. 288, 298). H. Frisch, Danmark besat og befriet, vol. 3: Den politiske Historie fra 29. August 1943 til Danmarks Befrielse (Copenhagen, 1948), pp. 305–311. Rigsdagstidende, Forhandlingerne i Folketinget, vol. 96 (1945), p. XI. The "necessary steps" refers primarily to a message of 08.05.45 transmitted to the governments of the Great Powers (cf. Rigstagstidende, Tillæg A, vol. 96 (1945), col. 1338) that had been worded by Kauffmann (telegram to the Danish Legation in Stockholm of 06.05.45, RA, AS, Afl. 1962, 6.G.5.d). Protokol for den 24. socialdemokratiske Partikongres i København den 19–22 August 1945 samt Partiets Program og Love (Copenhagen, 1945), pp. 103, 115, 118. Villaume, op. cit., p. 94. Seymour, op. cit., p. 236. Cf. Dau, op. cit., p. 135; Nielsen (now Midtgaard), op. cit., pp. 5, 14 – with further references. Letter E. Foss to the Sowjet Charge d'affairs in Stockholm, I. Tjernysjev, of 13.04.45, RA, AS, Aflevering 1962, 6.G.5.d.; cf. Hæstrup 1977, op. cit., p. 334–335. Cf. Lidegaard, op. cit., p. 365 (quote); N. F. Christiansen, Hartvig Frisch: Mennesket og politikern: En biografi (Copenhagen, 1993), p. 250. H. Frisch, "Rapport over De forenede Nationers Konference i San Francisco", Rapporter fra de delegerede ved Forenede Nationers konference i San Francisco (Copenhagen, 1945), p. 3–13 (p. 3). Christiansen, op. cit., p. 250–251. Frisch 1945, op. cit., p. 12–13 (the quote on the veto question is taken from Frisch's speech in the first commissions's second committee in San Francisco of 17.06.45 – English original in RA, AW, Aflevering 1964, 11.B.17.2). Rigsdagstidende, Forhandlingerne i Folketinget, vol. 96 (1945), col. 1179–1191. This last point is even more stressed and characterized as a possible practical reality in an article in the journal of the former Danish League of Nations Association: H. Frisch, "San Francisco Pagten", Freds‐Bladet, vol. 54 (15.09.45), pp. 50–51. T. Borring Olesen, "Jagten på et sikkerhedspolitisk ståsted: Socialdemokratiets holdninger til sikkerhedspolitiken 1945–48", In B. Nüchel Thomsen, ed. Temaer og brændspunkter i dansk politik efter 1945, (Odense, 1994), pp. 15–54 (pp. 24–25). E. Husfeldt, "Rapport over The United Nations Conference on International Organization", Rapporter fra de delegerede ved Forenede Nationers konference i San Francisco (Copenhagen, 1945), pp. 14–22 (p. 15). A. M. J. "Danmarks Forpligtelser og Opgaver som Medlem af de forenede Nationer", Morgenbladet (01.08.45). Rigsdagstidende, Forhandlingerne i Folketinget, vol. 96 (1945), col. 1178–1179. J. Christmas Mølller, "Denmark and Co‐operation with the United Nations [Speech in Copenhagen of 18 September 1945]", The United Nations Review, vol. 5, no. 6 (1945), p. 238. B. Jensen, Den lange befrielse: Bornholm besat og befriet 1945–1946 (Odense, 1996), p. 97; cf. letter J. Christmas Møller to J.C.W. Kruse of 08.08.45, RA, UM 4.F.Sverige.2/Günther. "Christmas Møller hylder Kong Haakon for hans Støtte til Danmark." Berlingske Tidende (03.09.45); central parts of the speech are reprinted in: Udenrigsministeriet, Dansk sikkerhedspolitik 1948–1966, vol. 2: Bilag (Copenhagen, 1968), p. 26. J. Hæstrup, Christmas Møllers Londonbreve: Korrespondance med hjemlandet 1942–1945 (Copenhagen, 1974); J. Christmas Møller, … Gør jer pligt – gør jert værk: John Christmas Møllers dagbøger 1941–1945 (Copenhagen, 1995). Cf. Møller, op. cit., p. 440; Seymour, op. cit., pp. 221–227; Hæstrup 1976, op. cit., p. 208; more general about the initiatives of the Danes in London to get accepted as a United Nation: Reventlow 1956, op. cit., p. 162–165. E. Seidenfaden, "'Aldrig mere 9. April': Omkring Danmarks udenrigspolitiske Nyorientering", Fremtiden, vol. 1, no. 1 (1945/46), pp. 3–7 (p. 3). Rigsdagstidende, Forhandlingerne i Folketinget, vol. 96 (1945), col. 1171–1239; Rigsdagstidende, Forhandlingerne i Landstinget, vol. 96 (1945), col. 756–778. Quote: Rigsdagstidende, Forhandlingerne i Landstinget, vol. 96 (1945), col. 772 (Elster Bonnichsen). These thoughts are most clearly expressed by Kristen Amby (Rigsdagstidende, Forhandlingerne i Folketinget, vol. 96 (1945), col. 1198) and Elster Bonnichsen (Rigsdagstidende, Forhandlingerne i Landstinget, vol. 96 (1945), col. 772). The debates are published in: Rigsdagstidende, Forhandlingerne i Folketinget, vol. 96 (1945), col. 1171–1239; Rigsdagstidende, Forhandlingerne i Landstinget, vol. 96 (1945), col. 756–778. Rigsdagstidende, Forhandlingerne i Folketinget, vol. 96 (1945), col. 1207 (Jørgen Jørgensen); Rigsdagstidende, Forhandlingerne i Landstinget, vol. 96 (1945), col. 774–775 (Hermod Lannung). The debates are published in: Rigsdagstidende, Forhandlingerne i Folketinget, vol. 96 (1945), col. 1171–1239; Rigsdagstidende, Forhandlingerne i Landstinget, vol. 96 (1945), col. 756–778. Certainly, the Danish atomic physicist N. Bohr, working on the American–British bomb project, already during the Second World War had launched a theory of the threat of atomic weapons creating unique possibilities for enduring international cooperation. In his approach, however, this negative incentive was complemented by the promise of universal welfare by the release of atomic energy for peaceful purposes and embedded in a general concept of international intercourse and measures designed to build up mutual confidence between nations (cf. N. Bohr, Open Letter to the United Nations: June 9th 1950 (Copenhagen, 1950)). In contrast, in the parliamentary debate referred to here the horror of the self‐destruction of mankind stands isolated as a motivation for the necessity of international cooperation. Copy of a telegram of C. L. Sulzberger to New York Times, December 1945, RA, UM, 5.D.75. S. Carstensen, "'Jeg tror paa UNO's Fremtid og Evne til at forme den nye Verden': Søndags‐Samtale med den hjemvendte Gustav Rasmussen, ikke som Udenrigsminister, men som Danmarks Antenne udadtil", Berlingske Tidende (18.02.46). Nielsen (now Midtgaard), op. cit., p. 13. Krilon (U. Ekman), "Trygve Lie", Fremtiden, vol. 2, no. 9 (1946/47), pp. 6–8 (p. 8). "An Interview with Per Federspiel, Danish Minister of Special Affairs and Member of the Danish Delegation to U.N. over Station WINS, New York on Oct. 29, 1946", RA, UM, 119.H.2.b.1946. Minutes of the delegation meeting of 30.10.47, RA, UM, add 119.H.2.1947. O. Lippmann's report to London of 11.03.45, quoted in Dau, op. cit., p. 135. "Socialdemokratiet og efterkrigstiden", Arbejderbevægelsens Bibliotek og Arkiv (ABA), Hans Hedtofts privatarkiv (HH), vol. 1. "Norden 1945", ABA, HH, vol. 1. "Solhvervstale" of December 1945, ABA, H.C. Hansens privatarkiv (HCH), vol. 1; the quote is from the, in part, similar "Tale om nordisk samarbejde" of 01.08.48, ibid., vol. 2; on the background of the folkehjem‐idea see: N. Götz, Ungleiche Geschwister: Die Konstruktion von nationalsozialistischer Volksgemeinschaft und schwedischem Volksheim (Baden‐Baden, 2001). E.g. the speeches of 05.06.45 and 21.07.46, ABA, HH, vol. 1. "Radioforedrag om Trygve Lie", ABA, HH, vol. 1. Speech in Helsinki on 01.05.49, ABA, HCH, vol. 2. Neither is this matter treated systematically in P. Villaume's seminal study on Danish NATO‐policy; cf., however, Villaume, op. cit., p. 154 with regard to Hedtoft. This question will be taken up in a study by K. K. N. Midtgaard and the author of the present article on the issue of security in Nordic discourses on the United Nations 1945–1956. Cf. e.g. O. Karup Pedersen, "FN – høj eller lav profil i dansk udenrigspolitik?", Dansk Udenrigspolitisk Årbog, vol. 11 (1989): pp. 74–83 (pp. 74–75). Cf. also Haagerup, op. cit., p. 15. Lidegaard 1996, op. cit., p. 226–227. Cf. J. P. Noack, Det sydslesvigske grænsespørgsmål 1945–1947, vol. 1–2 (Aabenraa, 1991). Quote: Minute by British foreign officer J. G. Ward, 27.11.41 according to Seymour, op. cit., p. 187. E. Seidenfaden, "Omkring Danmarks Tilbagevenden til Neutraliteten", Fremtiden, vol. 2, no. 1 (1946/47), pp. 15–23 (p. 18). The first time a member of the Danish government officially recognized the Cold War was Gustav Rasmussen in the foreign policy debate in parliament on 10.03.48, speaking of a possible collapse of the UN and the possibility of Denmark becoming an object of military aggression (N. Petersen, "Optionsproblematikken i dansk sikkerhedspolitik 1948–49", In N. Amstrup & I. Faurby, eds. Studier i dansk udenrigspolitik: Tilegnet Erling Bjøl, (Århus, 1978), pp. 199–235 (199)). M. Kylhammar, "DF satte faktoiden i ordboken", Dagens Forskning (17./18.03.03), p. 29. Carstensen, op. cit.