The First World War as Catalyst and Epiphany: The Case of Henry P. Davison
2007; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 18; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/09592290701322457
ISSN1557-301X
Autores Tópico(s)Health and Conflict Studies
ResumoAbstract The experience of the First World War was central to the emergence of a trans-Atlantic elite committed to close collaboration and an international alliance, either formal or de facto, between Great Britain and the United States. The reactions to the conflict of Henry P. Davison, dominant partner in J. P. Morgan and Company, illustrate the manner in which the First World War was catalytic in the creation of an Atlanticist elite. Davison, moreover, experienced something like a personal epiphany during the war, metamorphosing from a hard-driving businessman into an international philanthropist who developed ambitious schemes to remake the world. For seven years, Davison energetically sought to affect the course, outcome, and consequences of the First World War. Fundamental to Davison's worldview were the desirability and necessity of Anglo–American collaboration, on which all his other plans were predicated. When the war ended, Davison proposed almost visionary schemes, on the one hand to provide massive American governmental and private economic assistance to finance European postwar relief and reconstruction efforts and, on the other, to establish an international Red Cross organization that would mount a massive campaign to eradicate global public health problems. Although abortive in the short term, in the longer run his plans proved prophetic, anticipating the post–Second World War Marshall Plan and World Health Organization. Notes 1. Reginald Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981); Stuart Anderson, Race and Rapprochement: Anglo-Saxonism and Anglo-American Relations, 1895–1904 (East Brunswick, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1981); Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought, rev. ed. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1955), esp. pp. 170–84; David S. Healy, US Expansionism: The Imperialist Urge in the 1890s (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1970), pp. 13–6, 29–33, 38–42, 123–4; Michael H. Hunt, Ideology and US Foreign Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), pp. 77–9; Bradford Perkins, The Great Rapprochement: Britain and the United States, 1895–1914 (New York: Atheneum, 1968), pp. 74–83. 2. Alfred T. Mahan, The Interest of America in Sea Power, Present and Future (Boston: Little, Brown, 1897), esp. pp. 27, 49–51, 55, 107–34, 185–90, 257–9; idem, Lessons of the War with Spain (Boston: Little, Brown, 1900), pp. 289–98; idem, The Interest of America in International Conditions (Boston: Little, Brown, 1910), esp. pp. 35–124, 158–85; Robert Seager II, Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Man and His Letters (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1977), pp. 148–9, 225–6, 348–51, 522–5; Jon Tetsuo Sumida, Inventing Grand Strategy and Teaching Command: The Classic Works of Alfred Thayer Mahan (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, and Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), esp. pp. 80–92; Warren Zimmermann, First Great Triumph: How Five Americans Made Their Country into a World Power (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2002), esp. ch. 3. 3. A. E. Campbell, Great Britain and the United States, 1895–1903 (London: Longmans, 1960); Charles S. Campbell, Anglo-American Understanding, 1898–1903 (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1957); Perkins, Great Rapprochement; Howard K. Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of America to World Power (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1954), ch. 3; H. C. Allen, Great Britain and the United States: A History of Anglo-American Relations (1783–1952) (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1955), pp. 518–629. 4. On this group, see Zimmermann, First Great Triumph; Beale, Theodore Roosevelt; H. W. Brands, T.R.: The Last Romantic (New York: Basic Books, 1997); Kathleen Dalton, Theodore Roosevelt: A Strenuous Life (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002); Raymond A. Esthus, Theodore Roosevelt and the International Rivalries (Claremont, CA: Regina Books, 1970); Edmund Morris, Theodore Rex (New York: Random House, 2001); Kenton J. Clymer, John Hay: The Gentleman as Diplomat (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1975); Seager, Alfred Thayer Mahan; William C. Widenor, Henry Cabot Lodge and the Search for an American Foreign Policy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980); Philip C. Jessup, Elihu Root, 2 vols. (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1938). 5. Ernest R. May, American Imperialism: A Speculative Essay (New York: Atheneum, 1968), esp. pp. 17–94, 198–230. 6. Anderson, Race and Rapprochement; Healy, US Expansionism; Hofstadter, Social Darwinism; Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny; Hunt, Ideology and US Foreign Policy, pp. 77–9; Perkins, Great Rapprochement, pp. 74–83; Thomas G. Dyer, Theodore Roosevelt and the Idea of Race (Baton Rouge: University of Louisiana Press, 1980). 7. On patrician Americans' resentment of the new immigrants, see Anderson, Race and Rapprochement, pp. 54–7, 81–2; John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism 1860–1925, 2nd ed. (New Brunswick, NJ:Rutgers University Press, 1977), pp. 136–44, 175–82; Richard Hofstadter, The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. (New York: Vintage, 1956), pp. 176–86; Desmond King, Making Americans: Immigration, Race, and the Origins of the Diverse Democracy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), esp. chs. 3–7; Zimmermann, First Great Triumph, pp. 455–65. 8. On these two traditions, see Priscilla Roberts, “The Anglo-American Theme: American Visions of an Atlantic Alliance, 1914–1933,” Diplomatic History, 21/3 (1997), pp. 333–64; Nicholas J. Cull, “Selling Peace: The Origins, Promotion and Fate of the Anglo-American New Order During World War II,” Diplomacy and Statecraft, 7/1 (1996), pp. 1–15; Thomas J. Knock, To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); William N. Tilchin, Theodore Roosevelt and the British Empire: A Study in Presidential Statecraft (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997). 9. New York Times, 7 May 1922. The only full biography of Davison is the somewhat adulatory work by his partner, Thomas W. Lamont, Henry P. Davison: The Record of a Useful Life (New York: Harper and Row, 1933), quotation from p. xix. Davison also features extensively in Ron Chernow, The House of Morgan: An American Banking Dynasty and the Rise of Modern Finance (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1990); and Vincent P. Carosso, The Morgans: Private International Bankers, 1854–1913 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987). There is a biographical sketch in Sheridan A. Logan, George F. Baker and His Bank 1840–1955: A Double Biography (n.p., 1981), pp. 349–55. 10. Lamont, Henry P. Davison, pp. 51–64; Vincent P. Carosso, Investment Banking in America: A History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970), p. 143. 11. Lamont, Henry P. Davison, pp. 116–21; Fritz Redlich, The Molding of American Banking: Men and Ideas, 2 vols. (New York: Johnson Reprint Ed., 1968), 2:187–9; Jonathan Hughes, The Vital Few: American Economic Progress and its Protagonists (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1966), pp. 423–31. 12. Chernow, House of Morgan, p. 144; Lamont, Henry P. Davison, pp. 54–5, 57–61, 67–71, 235–6; Willard D. Straight, “The Englewood Scoots, or Davie's Locker: A Romance of the Seize,” n.d., Reel 10, Willard D. Straight Papers (microfilm ed.), Cornell University Library, Ithaca, NY. 13. Straight to Dorothy Whitney, 27 November, 26 December 1910, Reel 4, Straight Papers; Chernow, House of Morgan, pp. 142–3. 14. New York Times, 19 November 1917. 15. Robert H. Wiebe, Businessmen and Reform: A Study of the Progressive Movement (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1962), pp. 104–5; Edward Chase Kirkland, Dream and Thought in the Business Community, 1860–1900 (Chicago: Quadrangle, 1964), pp. 115–8; James Warren Prothro, The Dollar Decade: Business Ideas in the 1920's (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1954), pp. 175–91, 197–200. 16. Morgan to George W. Perkins, 28 October 1907, quoted in Wiebe, Businessmen and Reform, p. 104. 17. Davison, testimony, quoted in Lamont, Henry P. Davison, p. 143. 18. Paul P. Abrahams, “Brandeis and Lamont on Finance Capitalism,” Business History Review, 47/1 (1973), pp. 76–9, 94; New York Times, 4 January 1914. 19. Robert H. Wiebe, “The House of Morgan and the Executive,” American Historical Review, 64/4 (1959), pp. 49–60; Carosso, The Morgans, pp. 453–9. 20. Lamont habitually responded strongly to all criticisms of the Morgan firm, and also spoke frequently and published numerous articles setting out his views on a wide range of political and financial matters. Examples are scattered throughout his voluminous papers. Even his decision in the early 1930s to publish a biography of Davison may have represented not just a desire to memorialize a still badly missed partner, but a conscious effort to deflect criticism from the Morgan firm and burnish its humanitarian credentials before the impending Pecora committee hearings into stock speculation. 21. Frank A. Vanderlip to James Stillman, 14 September 1912, Box 4, Series B-1, Frank A. Vanderlip Papers, Special Collections, Butler Library, Columbia University, NY. 22. Lamont to Davison, 24 June 1912, cited in Stewart Halsey Ross, Propaganda for War: How the United States was Conditioned to Fight the Great War of 1914–1918 (Jefferson, SC: McFarland, 1996), p. 164. 23. On the relationships among the various Morgan firms, see Carosso, The Morgans, esp. chs. 4, 12, 14; Chernow, The House of Morgan, passim; Kathleen Burk, Morgan Grenfell 1838–1988: The Biography of a Merchant Bank (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), esp. chs. 2–4. On the Morgan firm's pre-1914 business role, see Carosso, The Morgans, esp. chs. 6–11, 13–17; Carosso, Investment Banking in America, pp. 252–61, 318–37, 352–9; Jean Strouse, Morgan: American Financier (New York: Random House, 1999). 24. On these ventures, see Carosso, The Morgans, pp. 550–78; Herbert Croly, Willard Straight (New York: Macmillan, 1924), pp. 157–454; Michael H. Hunt, Frontier Diplomacy and the Open Door: Manchuria in Chinese-American Relations, 1895–1911 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973), pp. 1–2, 115, 143–263; Charles Vevier, The United States and China, 1906–1913: A Study of Finance and Diplomacy (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1955), pp. 28–219; Lamont, Henry P. Davison, pp. 153–71; Burk, Morgan Grenfell, pp. 65–7. 25. Lamont, Henry P. Davison, pp. 126–33; Carosso, The Morgans, 618–9; James Livingston, Origins of the Federal Reserve System: Money, Class, and Corporate Capitalism, 1890–1913 (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1986), pp. 188–9, 209; Robert Craig West, Banking Reform and the Federal Reserve 1863–1923 (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1977), pp. 70–5. 26. See William H. Becker, The Dynamics of Business-Government Relations: Industry & Exports 1892–1921 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1982), pp. 136–7; Carl P. Parrini, Heir to Empire: United States Economic Diplomacy, 1916–1923 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1969), pp. 22–3, 103–4; Burton I. Kaufman, Efficiency and Expansion: Foreign Trade Organization in the Wilson Administration, 1913–1921 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1974), pp. 74–6, 104–5; West, Origins of the Federal Reserve System, pp. 201–3. 27. Davison to F. N. Kay-Menzies, 28 April 1919, Henry P. Davison Papers, American Red Cross Archives, Washington, DC. 28. Lamont, Henry P. Davison, pp. 172–3; cf. Lamont, Across World Frontiers (New York, Harcourt Brace, 1951), pp. 51–2; Dwight W. Morrow to Lamont, 8 March 1924, “Interview of J. P. Morgan in the Wall Street Journal, August 1, 1914, a.m.,” File J. P. Morgan & Co.-Partners, Dwight W. Morrow Papers, Amherst College Library, Amherst, MA. 29. The Morgan firm's financial activities for the Allies during the war are summarized in “Memorandum Relative to Financing by J. P. Morgan & Co. during the World War,” n.d., File 213–7, Thomas W. Lamont Papers, Baker Library, Harvard Business School, Boston, MA. See also Lamont, Henry P. Davison, pp. 186–230; Chernow, The House of Morgan, ch. 10; John Douglas Forbes, Stettinius, Sr.: Portrait of a Morgan Partner (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1974), ch. 6; idem, J. P. Morgan, Jr., 1867–1943 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1981), pp. 88–99; Edward M. Lamont, The Ambassador from Wall Street: The Story of Thomas W. Lamont, J. P. Morgan's Chief Executive: A Biography (Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1994), pp. 67–85; Burk, Morgan, Grenfell, pp. 172–82; idem, Britain, America, and the Sinews of War, 1914–1918 (Boston: Allen, Unwin, 1985), chs. 1–5; Martin Horn, Britain, France, and the Financing of the First World War (Montreal, Canada: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2002); F. Carrington Weems, America and Munitions, 2 vols. (New York: n.p., 1923); Yves-Henri Nouailhat, France et États-Unis Août 1914–Avril 1917 (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1979), pp. 91–117, 241–95, 361–83. 30. J. P. Morgan & Co. to Morgan Grenfell & Co., 18 August 1915, U.S. Senate, 74 Cong., 2nd Sess., Hearings Before the Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry, 40 pts. (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1934–43), 26:8121–2. 31. Accounts of the Federal Reserve Board disputes over acceptances during 1915 and 1916 are given in Priscilla Roberts, “ ‘Quis Custodiet Ipsos Custodes?’ The Federal Reserve System's Founding Fathers and Allied Finances in the First World War,” Business History Review, 72/4 (1998), pp. 585–620; John Milton Cooper, Jr., “The Command of Gold Reversed: American Loans to Britain, 1915–1917,” Pacific Historical Review, 45/2 (1976), pp. 215, 222; Paul M. Warburg, “History of the Development of the Acceptance Regulation,” 5 October 1915, Box 12, Paul M. Warburg Papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library, New Haven, CT. 32. Chernow, House of Morgan, p. 185. 33. Ibid., p. 187; Lamont, Henry P. Davison, pp. 217–20; Forbes, Stettinius, p. 46. 34. Straight, diary and associated correspondence and cables, 25 November 1914–16 January 1915, File 28259, Morgan Grenfell Papers, Guildhall Library, London; copies also in Boxes 34 and 41, J. P. Morgan, Jr. Papers, Pierpont Morgan Library, NY. 35. Davison to Morgan, 23 December 1914, Box 34, Morgan Papers. 36. Davison to Morgan, 11 December 1914, ibid. 37. Horn, Britain, France, and the Financing of the First World War, pp. 69–71; for details, see correspondence and cables in Boxes 34 and 41, Morgan Papers. 38. Straight to Dorothy Straight, 2 January 1915, Reel 2, Dorothy Whitney Straight Elmhirst Papers (microfilm ed.), Cornell University Library, Ithaca, NY. 39. Davison to Morgan, 11 December 1914, Box 34, Morgan Papers. Davison may have had other, more personal, motives for this suggestion. He was apparently involved in an extramarital affair with a younger woman who was a good friend of his wife and married to a junior banker working for the Astor Trust Company, a Morgan affiliate. In March 1915 the husband discovered this, whereupon he shot his wife dead and committed suicide himself. Davison's wife afterwards brought up and educated their two small children. New York Times, 23 March 1915; Chernow, House of Morgan, p. 218. 40. Chernow, House of Morgan, pp. 187–91; Burk, Britain, America, and the Sinews of War, pp. 24–7, 32–3; Keith Neilson, Strategy and Supply: The Anglo-Russian Alliance, 1914–17 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1984), pp. 171–4, 185–9, 213–5. 41. Chernow, House of Morgan, pp. 190–1; Burk, Britain, America, and the Sinews of War, pp. 67–91; Horn, Britain, France, and the Financing of the First World War, pp. 93–9, 112–4; Nouailhat, France et États-Unis, pp. 240–8, 275–92, 361–72. 42. Horn, Britain, France, and the Financing of the First World War, pp. 93–9, 107–9, 132–40. 43. Burk, Britain, America, and the Sinews of War, p. 27. 44. Straight, diary, 1916, pp. 3–5; Vanderlip to Stillman, 19, 27 November 1915, Box 7, Series B-1, Vanderlip Papers; Priscilla Roberts, “Willard D. Straight and the Diplomacy of International Finance During the First World War,” Business History, 40/3 (1998), pp. 26–7, 30–1. Later in 1916 a subsequent AIC attempt, inspired by Straight, to poach French government wartime financing from the Morgan firm caused a lengthy estrangement between him and Davison. Ibid., p. 32. 45. Ernest W. Hardy to Morrow, 14 March 1916, File J. P. Morgan & Co.-Miscellaneous, Morrow Papers; Straight, diary, 22 March 1916, Reel 5, Straight Papers. On the repatriation of Allied-owned American securities during 1915–17, see Mira Wilkins, The History of Foreign Investment in the United States, 1914–1945 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), pp. 35–45. 46. J. P. Morgan & Co. to Davison, 9 October 1916, Munitions Hearings, 30:9610–1; Horn, Britain, France, and the Financing of the First World War, pp. 143–4; Burk, Britain, America, and the Sinews of War, pp. 81–2. 47. For accounts of the Treasury bills episode and its wider implications, see Arthur S. Link, Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace, 1916–1917 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965), pp. 200–3; Burk, Britain, America, and the Sinews of War, pp. 82–6; Cooper, “Command of Gold Reversed,” pp. 221–7; Horn, Britain, France, and the Financing of the First World War, pp. 145–65; Nouailhat, France et États-Unis, pp. 371–83; J. P. Morgan & Co., “Memorandum on Financing by J. P. Morgan & Co., pp. 91–5, File 213–7, Lamont Papers. 48. New York Times, 31 October, 4 November 1916; Commercial and Financial Chronicle, 103 (4 November 1916), pp. 1741–2; Morrow, address to Commercial Club, 9 November 1916, Speeches File, Morrow Papers. 49. Roberts, “ ‘Quis Custodiet Ipsos Custodes?,’ ” pp. 585–611. 50. Horn, Britain, France, and the Financing of World War I, pp. 148–9; Nouailhat, France et États-Unis, pp. 371–2. 51. Contemporary accounts of Davison's interview with the Board are given in Charles S. Hamlin, diary, Vol. IV, 19 November 1916, Charles S. Hamlin Papers, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC; Davison to Morgan, 20 November 1916, Munitions Hearings, 28:8730; Delano to Strong, 19 December 1916, File 211.1, Benjamin Strong Papers, Federal Reserve Bank of New York; James F. Curtis to Strong, 21 November, 16 December 1916, File 320.151, ibid.; Curtis to Strong, 8 January 1917, File 320.152, ibid.; Paul M. Warburg to Strong, 23 November 1916, File 211.3, ibid.; Warburg to House, 18 November 1916, Box 114a, Edward M. House Papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library, New Haven, CT. See also J. P. Morgan & Co., “Memorandum Relative to Financing by J. P. Morgan & Co.,” p. 92, File 213–7, Lamont Papers. 52. Delano to Strong, 19 December 1916, File 211.1, Strong Papers. 53. Delano to Strong, 19 December 1916, File 211.1, ibid.; Warburg to Strong, 23 November 1916, Warburg to Treman, 23 November 1916, File 211.3, ibid.; Curtis to Strong, 16 December 1916, File 320.151, ibid.; Hamlin, diary, Vol. IV, 20, 21, 24 November 1916, Hamlin Papers. 54. Hamlin, diary, Vol. IV, 25, 27 November 1916, Hamlin Papers; Wilson to Harding, 26 November 1916, and enclosure, Harding to Wilson, 27 November 1916, and enclosure, in Arthur S. Link (ed.), The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, 69 vols. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966–94), 40:77–80, 87–8; Munitions Hearings, 28:8552–3; Link, Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace, pp. 201–3. 55. For the full text of this announcement, see Munitions Hearings, 28:8734–5. 56. J. P. Morgan & Co., “Memorandum Relative to Financing by J. P. Morgan & Co.,” pp. 93–95, File 213–7, Lamont Papers; Munitions Hearings, 28:8558–60; Edward C. Grenfell to J. P. Morgan & Co., 27 November 1916 (2 telegrams), Davison to Morgan, Grenfell & Co., 29 November 1916, Herman Harjes to J. P. Morgan & Co., 1 December 1916, J. P. Morgan & Co. to Grenfell, 30 November 1916, Grenfell to J. P. Morgan & Co., 30 November 1916, J. P. Morgan & Co., statement, 1 December 1916, ibid., 28:8741–5; Burk, Britain, America, and the Sinews of War, pp. 86–7; Horn, Britain, France, and the Financing of World War I, p. 152. 57. J. P. Morgan & Co. to Grenfell, 28 November 1916, J. P. Morgan & Co. to Harjes, 28 November 1916, Munitions Hearings, 28:8738–40; Nouailhat, France et États-Unis, pp. 374–5. 58. J. P. Morgan & Co., “Memorandum Relative to Financing by J. P. Morgan & Co.,” pp. 95–97, File 213–7, Lamont Papers; John Maynard Keynes, “Notes on Exchange Control,” 1939, in Elizabeth Johnson (ed.), The Collected Writings of John Maynard Keynes: Volume XVI: Activities 1914–1919: The Treasury and Versailles (London: Macmillan, 1971), pp. 210–2; Link, Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace, p. 203; Burk, Britain, America, and the Sinews of War, pp. 86–7. 59. On the desperate Allied financial situation in early 1917, see exhibits 2663–90, Munitions Hearings, 26:8799–815; Horn, Britain, France, and the Financing of World War I, pp. 156–65; Link, Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace, pp. 379–82; Burk, Britain, America, and the Sinews of War, pp. 91–5; Cooper, “Command of Gold Reversed,” p. 227; Nouailhat, France et États-Unis, pp. 379–83. 60. Horn, Britain, France, and the Financing of World War I, pp. 162–5; Burk, Britain, America, and the Sinews of War, pp. 90–5. 61. Quotation from Strong to Curtis, 20 December 1916, File 320.151, Strong Papers; see also Strong to Curtis, 4 December 1916, File 320.151, ibid; Strong to W. H. Treman, 28 November 1916, File 320.221, ibid.; Strong to Pierre Jay, 15 December 1916, Munitions Hearings, 30:9544; James Brown to Strong, 1 December 1916, File Gold Pool of 1914, Brown Brothers Harriman Papers, New York Historical Society, New York; Burk, Britain, America, and the Sinews of War, p. 89. On British and French officials' reaction, see Hamlin, diary, Vol. IV, 30 December 1916, 14 February 1917, Hamlin Papers; Burk, Britain, America, and the Sinews of War, pp. 88–90; Cooper, “Command of Gold Reversed,” p. 227; Horn, Britain, France, and the Financing of World War I, pp. 150–2. 62. Quotation from Nicolson, Dwight Morrow (London: Constable, 1935), p. 188; Paul D. Cravath to Morrow, 27 December 1916, Cravath, “Second Draft of a Plan for the Formation of a Committee to Disseminate Information on the Importance to the United States of the Principles for which France, England and their Allies are Contending in the European War,” December 1916, File Paul D. Cravath 1915–1923, Morrow Papers; Morrow, Memorandum, 19 January 1917, File J. P. Morgan & Co.-Partners A-La, Morrow Papers. 63. Stimson, “Speaking Trip Through the Mid West, Aprl. 1917,” Reel 1, Henry L. Stimson Diary (microfilm ed.), Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University Library, New Haven, CT; Henry L. Stimson and McGeorge Bundy, On Active Service in Peace and War (New York: Harper, 1948), pp. 89–90. 64. On the preparedness movement, see John Patrick Finnegan, Jr., Against the Specter of a Dragon: The Campaign for American Military Preparedness, 1914–1917 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1974); John Garry Clifford, The Citizen Soldiers: The Plattsburg Training Camp Movement, 1913–1920 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1972); Michael Pearlman, To Make Democracy Safe for America: Patricians and Preparedness in the Progressive Era (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984); John Whiteclay Chambers, To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America (New York: Free Press, 1987), ch. 3. 65. Chambers, To Raise an Army, pp. 81–2; Finnegan, Against the Specter of a Dragon, pp. 96–102, 178; on the National Security League, see also John Carver Edwards, Patriots in Pinstripe: Men of the National Security League (Washington, DC: University Press of America, 1982). 66. On the socially elite American Ambulance Field Service, see Arlen J. Hansen, Gentlemen Volunteers: The Story of American Ambulance Drivers in the Great War August 1914–September 1918 (New York: Arcade Publishing, 1996). 67. Ralph D. Paine, The First Yale Unit: A Story of Naval Aviation 1916–1919, 2 vols. (Cambridge, MA: Riverside Press, 1925); Walter Isaacson and Evan Thomas, The Wise Men: Six Friends and the World They Made: Acheson, Bohlen, Harriman, Kennan, Lovett, McCloy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986), pp. 90–3. 68. Davison to Sir David Henderson, 20 November 1920, Davison Papers. 69. Quotation from New York Times, 31 March 1918; also Davison, “The Aims of the Red Cross,” address to mass meeting, Oklahoma City, OK, 1917 or 1918, Davison Papers; Davison, “The Spirit of Sacrifice,” Red Cross Magazine, 12/9 (September 1917), p. 343, ibid.; Davison, speech in St. Louis, Missouri, 22 October 1917, reported in St. Louis Star, 22 October 1917, ibid.; New York Times, 27 May, 7, 8, 28 June, 17, 23 December 1917, 31 March 1918. On the exhilaration that the spirit of wartime unity and camaraderie often generated among both businessmen and progressive reformers, see Robert D. Cuff, “We Band of Brothers—Woodrow Wilson's War Managers,” Canadian Review of American Studies, 5/2 (1974), pp. 137–45; Allen F. Davis, “Welfare, Reform and World War I,” American Quarterly, 19/4 (1967), pp. 519–33. 70. For accounts of Davison's work for the Red Cross, see Lamont, Henry P. Davison, pp. 266–321; Henry P. Davison, The American Red Cross in the Great War(New York: Macmillan, 1919); Clyde E. Buckingham, For Humanity's Sake: The Story of the Early Development of the League of Red Cross Societies (Washington, DC: Public Affairs Press, 1964), pp. 1–18; Foster Rhea Dulles, The American Red Cross: A History (New York: Harper, 1950), pp. 141–212; C. R. Gaeddert, “The American Red Cross in World War I, 1917–1918,” History of the American Red Cross, Vol. IV, unpublished manuscript, American Red Cross Archives, Washington, DC, 1950, esp. pp. 79–85, 130–80. 71. Gaeddert, “The American National Red Cross in World War I,” pp. 194–7, 440–1; Dulles, The American Red Cross, p. 144. 72. John F. Hutchinson, Champions of Charity: War and the Rise of the Red Cross (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), p. 270. 73. New York Times, 23 June 1917. 74. New York Times, 25 May, 12 June 1917. 75. New York Times, 23 July 1917. 76. Hermann Hagedorn, The Magnate: William Boyce Thompson and His Time [1869–1930] (New York: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1935), p. 182; George F. Kennan, Russia Leaves the War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1956), pp. 52–62, 182, quotation from p. 55; Neil V. Salzman, Reform and Revolution: The Life and Times of Raymond Robins (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1991), pp. 173–216; New York Times, 2 July 1917. See also the work by the conservative scholar Antony C. Sutton, Wall Street and the Bolshevik Revolution (New Rochelle, New York: Arlington House Publishers, 1974), chs. 5–6, which treats Thompson as an apolitical imperialist whose only objective was to keep Russia in the war. 77. File 134–4, Lamont Papers; Hagedorn, The Magnate, pp. 192–223; Kennan, Russia Leaves the War, pp. 56, 60–1; Claude E. Fike, “The Influence of the Creel Committee and the American Red Cross on Russian-American Relations, 1917–1919,” Journal of Modern History, 31/2 (1959), pp. 101–2; Salzman, Reform and Revolution, pp. 185–9. 78. Files 134–5 and 134–6, Lamont Papers; Hagedorn, The Magnate, pp. 247–62; Kennan, Russia Leaves the War, pp. 60–1, 245–7; Salzman, Reform and Revolution, pp. 214–5. 79. Davison to House, with enclosed cables, 6 October 1917, Box 36, House Papers, copies also in Davison Papers and in File W. B. Thompson, Morrow Papers; “form of cable suggested by T. W. L. to [Oscar T.] Crosby for him to Send to the State Department,” n.d. but either late 1917 or early 1918, File 134–4, Lamont Papers; Lamont, handwritten notes, n.d. but same period, ibid.; Hagedorn, The Magnate, pp. 216–7, 224–5, 230, 249–50, 252–8; Lamont, Across World Frontiers, pp. 85–94; Salzman, Reform and Revolution, pp. 214–6. 80. Cravath to William G. McAdoo, 14 December 1917, Box 12, Paul D. Cravath Papers, Record Group 56, General Records of the Department of the Treasury, National Archives II; see also Crosby to McAdoo, draft letter, 14 December 1917, ibid.; Cravath and Lamont, “Official Memo for O. T. Crosby,” covering period 26 December 1917-early January 1918, ibid.; Cravath and Lamont, “Memorandum of the Present Situation in Russia—Suggested Means to Prevent German Domination of Russia,” 3 January 1918, ibid. A few days later Lamont sent a redrafted version of the last memorandum to President Wilson. 81. Cravath and Lamont, “Memorandum of the Present Situation in Russia: Suggested Means To Prevent German Domination of Russia,” enclosed in Lamont to House, 2 January 1918, File 134–5, House Papers; also Lamont to Lord Reading, 17, 18 December 1917, Lamont, “Memorandum in reference to the Russian situation covering London and Washington conferences of W. B. T. and T. W. L.,” dictated in January 1918, all in ibid.; Lamont to Wilson, 9, 29 January 1918, Cravath and Lamont, “Official Memo. for O. T. Crosby,” 10 January 1918, File 134–16, ibid.; Lamont, Across World Frontiers, pp. 86–9; Hagedorn, The Magnate, pp. 252–8; Kennan, Russia Leaves the War, p. 245; Lamont, Ambassador from Wall Street, pp. 97–8; Fike, “Influence of the Creel Committee,” pp. 102–7. 82. Wilson to Lamont, 31 January 1918, File 134–6, Lamont Papers; Lamont, Across World Frontiers, pp. 90–4; Hagedorn, The Magnate, pp. 258–60; Kennan, Russia Leaves the War, pp. 245–7; Lamont, Ambassador from Wall Street, pp. 97–8. 83. Kennan, Russia Leaves the War, pp. 62–5 and passim; idem, The Decision to Intervene (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1958), passim; Salzman, Reform and Revolution, chs. 12–7; Peter G. Filene, Americans and the Soviet Experiment, 1917–1933 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967), pp. 26–33. 84. W. B. Fowler, British-American Relations 1917–1918: The
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