A Man's Job? The Kôda Sisters, Violin Playing, and Gender Stereotypes in the Introduction of Western Music in Japan
2012; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 21; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/09612025.2012.645675
ISSN1747-583X
Autores Tópico(s)Music History and Culture
ResumoAbstract Playing the violin in Japan was pioneered by women. The first Japanese to study the violin abroad were Kôda Nobu (1870–1946) and Andô Kô (née Kôda, 1878–1963). Both taught at the Tokyo Academy of Music (now Tokyo University of the Arts) after their return. Kôda later opened a piano studio. The article describes their lives and careers and shows how their Western expertise gave them unprecedented opportunities while their gender imposed limitations. It discusses the sisters' role in the transmission of Western music to Japan in the context of Western as well as Japanese preconceptions about appropriate musical roles for women. Notes I thank the Institute for Advanced Study (Princeton) and the Edward T. Cone Foundation for granting me a membership at the Institute which enabled me to complete this article. Japanese names in the main text are given according to Japanese convention with the surname first. A short piece about the Kôda sisters was previously published as M. Mehl (2007) Land of the Rising Sisters, The Strad, May, pp. 60–64. Fumiko Senju & Mariko Senju (2005) Haha to musume no kyôsôkyoku (Tokyo: Jiji tsûshin shuppankyoku), p. 6. Ibid., p. 239. Ibid., pp. 231–232. Chikashi Tanaka (2001) Gohon no hashira: violin-dô: shûgyô no tabi (Tokyo: Lesson-no-Tomo-sha), pp. 10–11. Maiko Kawabata (2004) Virtuoso Codes of Violin Performance: power, military heroism and gender (1789–1830), 19th-Century Music, 28, pp. 89–107. Paula Gillet (2000) Musical Women in England, 1870–1914: ‘Encroaching on All Man's Privileges’ (New York: St Martin's Press); Freia Hoffmann (1991) Instrument und Körper: Die musizierende Frau in der bürgerlichen Kultur (Frankfurt a.M.: Insel Verlag). Mari Yoshihara (2007) Musicians from a Different Shore: Asians and Asian Americans in classical music (Philadelphia: Temple University Press). The only detailed biography is Yukiko Hagiya (2003) Kôda shimai: Yôgaku reimeiki o sasaeta Kôda Nobu to Andô Kô (Tokyo: Chopin). Takii discusses Kôda Nobu's influence on her brother Rohan: Keiko Takii (2001) Kôda Rohan to ongaku, soshite imôto no Nobu, Tôkyô geijutsu daigaku ongakubu kiyô, 26, pp. 87–107; Keiko Takii (2004) Sôseki ga kiita Beethoven (Tokyo: Chûô Kôronsha). Kôda is also included in a few general works, but they offer no more than brief biographical summaries; for example, Midori Kobayashi (1999) Josei sakkyokuka retsuden (Tokyo: Heibonsha), pp. 281–285. See also Sondra Wieland Howe (1995) The Role of Women in the Introduction of Western Music in Japan, The Bulletin of Historical Research in Music Education, 16(2), pp. 81–97. The Documentation Centre of Modern Japanese Music in Tokyo has microfilms of papers relating to Kôda Nobu kept by the Kôda family. They include some of her compositions, hand-copied scores of Western works, correspondence, notebooks, graduation and appointment certificates, invitations from the Imperial family, and a diary of her second trip to Europe in 1909/10. Most of the materials date from the latter half of Kôda Nobu's life, which limits their relevance for this article. For a short comment on the diary, see below; also Keiko Takii (1998) Kôda Nobu saikô e no kiun: Tôkyô geijutsu daigaku teiki 100 shûnen to Kôda Nobu, Ongaku geijutsu, 12, pp. 126–127. Kôichi Nomura, Kenzô Nakajima & Kiyomichi Miyoshi (1978) Nihon Yôgaku gaishi: Nihon gakudan chôrô ni yoru taikenteki Yôgaku no rekishi (Tokyo: Rajio gijutsu sha), p. 29, Hisao Tanabe (1965) Meiji ongaku monogatari (Tokyo: Seiabô), p. 232. On Mason and the introduction of Western music into the education system see Ury Eppstein (1994) The Beginnings of Western Music in Meiji Era Japan (New York: Edwin Mellen), Sondra Wieland Howe (1997) Luther Whiting Mason: international music educator (Warren, MI: Harmonie Park Press). Nomura et al., Nihon Yôgaku gaishi, p. 29; Tanabe, Meiji ongaku monogatari, p. 232. Byron Marschall (1994) Learning to be Modern: Japanese political discourse on education (Boulder: Westview Press). Nobu Kôda (1931) Watakushi no hansei, Ongaku sekai, 3(6), pp. 33–42, p. 34. Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi hensan iinkai (Ed.) (1887) Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi: Tôkyô Ongaku Gakkô hen 1 (Tokyo: Ongakunotomosha), p. 64. Edward Sylvester Morse (1917) Japan Day by Day, 1877, 1878–9, 1882–3 (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin), pp. 212–213. Zenzô Matsumoto (1995) Teikin yûjô: Nihon no vaiorin ongaku shi (Tokyo: Ressun no tomo sha), p. 10. Both readings of the name appear in the literature; Ikuta gives the reading ‘Uriu’ in Japanese phonetic script for the title in the revised edition of her biography: Sumie Ikuta (2003) Butô e no kan'yû: Nihon saisho no joshi ryûgakusei Nagai Shige no shôgai (Tokyo: Bungeisha). Sumie Ikuta (2009) Uriu Shigeko: Mô hitori no joshi ryûgakusei (Tokyo: Bungei Shunjû). Kôda, ‘Watakushi no hansei’, p. 35. Matsumoto, Teikin yûjô, p. 7. Kôda, ‘Watakushi no hansei’, p. 38. Even in the early twentieth century most started late; Ono Anna Kinenkai (Ed.) (1988) Kaisô no Ono Anna (Tokyo: Ongakunotomosha). Matsumoto, Teikin yûjô, p. 11. Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi hensan iinkai (Ed.) Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi: Tôkyô Ongaku Gakkô hen 1, pp. 219–220. On Eckert and Sauvlet: Rihei Nakamura (1993) Yôgaku dônyûsha no kiseki: Nihon kindai Yôgakushi josetsu (Tokyo: Tôsui Shobô). Irene Suchy (1992) Deutschsprachige Musiker in Japan vor 1945. Eine Fallstudie eines Kulturtransfers am Beispiel der Rezeption abendländischer Musik (Ph.D., University of Vienna), pp. 185–187. Judith Tick (1986) Passed Away Is the Piano Girl: changes in American musical life, 1870–1900, in Jane Bowers & Judith Tick (Eds) Women Making Music: the Western art tradition, 1150–1950 (London: Macmillan), pp. 325–348. Kôda papers; microfilm: 1990-7-5. Quoted in Howe, Luther Whiting Mason, p. 124. Edith Stumpf-Fischer (1998–) Gerold, Rosa von. http://www.univie.ac.at/biografiA/daten/text/bio/gerold_r.htm (accessed 24 October 2008). Kôda Kô to Rosa Gerold, Berlin, 1 April 1901 & Tokyo, 8 May 1906. Manuscripts in the Austrian National Library (Musikerbriefe, KODA, Ko (Kat.-Nr. 2297), 740/25-1 & 740/25-2. The Kôda papers contain seven letters from Gerold, 1904–1906; microfilm 1990-12-90/96. Nomura et al., Nihon Yôgaku gaishi, p. 6. Manuscripts in the Kôda papers: microfilm 1990-7. Nobu Kôda (2006) Two Sonatas for Violin and Piano. Edited by Shinichirô Ikebe (Tokyo: Zen-on Music). Luciana Galliano (2002) Yôgaku: Japanese music in the twentieth century, trans. M. Mayes (Lanham, MD and London: The Scarecrow Press), p. 40.One was performed on 5 June 1897; see Keiko Takii (2008) Nihon no gengaku kyôiku/kusawake no jidai, Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku sôritsu 120 nen kinen ongakusei: Geidai 120 nen o furikaette (festival programme) (Tokyo: Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku), pp. 42–43, p. 43. Yamada (1886–1965), generally regarded as the first composer of note, also pioneered the symphony orchestra in Japan. Kôda, ‘Watakushi no hansei’, p. 38. Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi hensan iinkai (Ed.) (1990) Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi: Ensôkai hen 1 (Tokyo: Ongakunotomosha), p. 25. Yomiuri Shinbun, 20 July 1894, quoted in Hagiya, Kôda shimai, p. 116. Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi hensan iinkai (Ed.) Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi: Ensôkai hen 1, pp. 3, 6. Matsumoto, Teikin yûjô, p. 25..Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi hensan iinkai (Ed.) (2003) Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi: Tôkyô Ongaku Gakkô hen 2 (Tokyo: Ongakunotomosha), pp. 1320–1321. Musical Times, May 1902, excerpts; http://www.musicaltimes.co.uk/archive/misc/excerpts1902.html (accessed 6 February 2009). Sazanami Iwaya (1903) Sazanami Yôkô miyage (Tokyo: Hakubunkan), pp. 194–197. Suchy, Deutschsprachige Musiker in Japan, p. 212, Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi hensan iinkai (Ed.) Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi: Tôkyô Ongaku Gakkô hen 1, pp. 533–535; Norman Schweikert (1995) August Junker Rediscovered, Notebook: Chicago Symphony Orchestra Program, September–December, pp. 17–24. Hagiya, Kôda shimai, pp. 164–172, 126. Quoted in ibid., p. 133. Tôkyô Nichinichi Shinbun, 10 September 1909, in Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi hensan iinkai (Ed.) Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi: Tôkyô Ongaku Gakkô hen 1, p. 572; that year the German Rudolph Ernest Reuter (1888–?) was appointed to teach singing and piano (Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi hensan iinkai [Ed.] Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi: Tôkyô Ongaku Gakkô hen 1, p. 538) and Kambe Aya returned from France. It is not clear whether Kôda resigned voluntarily or was ordered to do so; the school's history has, ‘ordered to resign temporarily’. Her employment officially ceased on 8 September 1911. Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi hensan iinkai (Ed.) Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi: Tôkyô Ongaku Gakkô hen 2, pp. 1311, 1557. Kôda papers, microfilm 1990-9-32/33; 20 July 1910. Nobu Kôda (1910) Katei to ongaku, Ongaku-kai, 3(10), pp. 57–59. Nobu Kôda (1912) Ongaku to katei, Ongaku-kai, 5(2), pp. 65–66. Hagiya, Kôda shimai, pp. 233–239. Hisako Kochô (1968) Taki Rentarô (Tokyo: Yoshikawa Kôbunkan), pp. 277–278. Hagiya, Kôda shimai, p. 167. The association of female music-making with women's sexual role can be found in many cultures; Ellen Koskoff (Ed.) (1989) Women and Music in Cross-Cultural Perspective (Urbana: University of Illinois Press), p. 6. A. Kimi Coaldrake (1989) Female Tayû in the Gidayû Narrative Tradition of Japan, in Koskoff (Ed.) Women and Music in Cross-Cultural Perspective, pp. 151–162, Lesley Downer (2003) Madame Sadayakko: the geisha who seduced the West (London: Review). Ikuta, Butô e no kan'yû. Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi hensan iinkai (Ed.) Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi: Tôkyô Ongaku Gakkô hen 2, pp. 1548, 1566, 1582. Ibid., pp. 1319, 1564. Ibid., p. 1321. Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi hensan iinkai (Ed.) Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi: Ensôkai hen 1, p. 207. Ibid., p. 224. Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi hensan iinkai (Ed.) Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi: Tôkyô Ongaku Gakkô hen 2, p. 1324. Hiroko Nakamura (1992) Pianisuto to iu banzoku ga iru (Tokyo: Bungei Shunjû sha), pp. 121–175. Minoru Nishihara (2000) ‘Gakusei’ Beethoven no tanjô (Tokyo: Heibonsha). Eva Rieger (1981) Frau, Musik und Männerherrschaft: Zum Ausschluss der Frau aus der deutschen Musikpädagogik, Musikwissenschaft uns Musikausübung (Frankfurt: Ullstein), pp. 10, 13, 109, 141–147. Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi hensan iinkai (Ed.) Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi: Ensôkai hen 1, pp. 19–20. Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi hensan iinkai (Ed.) Tôkyô Geijutsu Daigaku hyakunenshi: Tôkyô Ongaku Gakkô hen 2, p. 1320. Tanabe, Meiji ongaku monogatari, pp. 242–244. Kôda papers, microfilm 1990-13-70. Hans-Jürgen Lüsebrink & Rolf Reichardt (Eds) (1997) Kulturtransfer im Epochenumbruch Frankreich—Deutschland 1770 bis 1815 (Leipzig: Leipziger Universitätsverlag). For this and the following: Gillet, Musical Women, pp. 4–5, 78, 82–87, Hoffmann, Instrument und Körper, pp. 187–189. Also Kawabata, ‘Virtuoso Codes’. Hoffmann, Instrument und Körper, pp. 75, 91. Gillet, Musical Women, pp. 114–117. Marion Koch (1995) Salomes Schleier: Eine andere Kulturgeschichte des Tanzes (Hamburg: Europäische Verlagsanstalt); Susanne Gläß (1992) Die Rolle der Geige im Jazz (Bern: Peter Lang), p. 177. Reinhold Hammerstein (1974) Diabolus in Musica: Studien zur Ikonographie der Musik im Mittelalter (Bern and Munich: Franke); Reinhold Hammerstein (1980) Tanz und Musik des Todes: Die Mittelalterlichen Totentänze und ihr Nachleben (Bern and Munich: Franke). For a more detailed discussion of the associations between the violin, the devil and the supernatural in general: Gillet, Musical Women, pp. 89–96. Christine Ammer (2001) Unsung: a history of women in American music (original work published 1980) (Portland, OR: Amadeus), p. 21. Margaret Campbell (1980) The Great Violinists (London: Granada), pp. 84–87. Ibid., p. 85. Ammer, Unsung. Nancy Reich (1995) Women as Musicians: a question of class, in: Ruth A. Solie (Ed.) Musicology and Difference: gender and sexuality in musical scholarship. Berkeley: University of California Press), pp. 125–146. Michael Musgrave (1990) Marie Soldat 1863–1955: an English perspective, in: Reimar Emans & Matthias Wendt (Eds) Beiträge zur Geschichte des Konzerts: Festschrift Siebfried Kross zum 60. Geburtstag (Bonn: Gudrun Schröder Verlat), pp. 321, 324. Barbara Kühnen (2000) Marie Soldat-Roeger (1863–1955), in Kay Dreyfus, Margarethe Engelhardt-Krajaneck & Barbara Kühnen (Eds) Die Geige war ihr Leben: Drei Geigerinnen im Portrait (Strasshof, Austria: Vier-Viertel-Verlag). Andreas Moser (1967) Geschichte des Violinspiels: Zweite verbesserte und ergänzte Auflage von Hans-Joachim Nösselt (Tutzing: Hans Schneider), pp. 281–282. Reich, ‘Women as Musicians’, pp. 144–146. Gillet, Musical Women. Quoted in Susanne Gläß (1993) Als Frau Geige spielen, Das Orchester, 4(2), pp. 130–133, p. 132. Mariko Ogawa & Mara Patessio (2005) To Become a Woman Doctor in Early Meiji Japan (1868–1890): women's struggles and ambitions, Historia Scientiarum, 15(2), pp. 159–176. Sally Hastings (2006) Gendering Meiji Japan, Gendering World History: insights from Mr. Kushami's Cat, U.S.—Japan Women's Journal, 30–31, pp. 160–169, p. 167. Kunio Iishima (1989) Meiji Seiyô ongaku yôran jidai no kakuretaru senkôsha Hiruma Kenpachi no shôgai (Tokyo: Zen'on gakufu shuppansha), p. 53. Tasaburô Morita (1912) Meiryû manga (Tokyo: Hakubunkan), pp. 184–185. The text appears to contain an allusion to her brother Rohan's story Isanatori. The author may have confused the two sisters, as did other reporters at the time. For Kôda Nobu's influence on Rohan's perceptions of music: Takii, ‘Kôda Rohan to ongaku, soshite imôto no Nobu’, p. 103. Kôsaku Yamada (1999 [1951]) Jiden: Wakakihi no kyôshikyoku (Tokyo: Nihon tosho sentâ), pp. 130–131. Aya Kambe (1912) Yôgaku to katei, Ongaku-kai, 5(2), pp. 66–67. Examples of contemporary opinions: Gen'ichirô Yamada (1910) Joshi to ongaku, Ongaku-kai, 3, pp. 57–58, Shû Amaya (1911) Joshi no shokugyô to ongaku, Ongaku-kai, 4(10), pp. 13–14. Suchy, Deutschsprachige Musiker in Japan. Nishihara, ‘Gakusei’ Beethoven no tanjô. Hagiya, Kôda shimai, pp. 245–246. Ibid., p. 260. Additional informationNotes on contributorsMargaret MehlMargaret Mehl, Dr. Phil. (Bonn), Dr. Phil. (Copenhagen) is Associate Professor in the Asian Section of the Department of Cross-Cultural and Regional Studies at the University of Copenhagen. Her main interest is the cultural history of Japan in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Her most recent monograph is Private Academies of Chinese Learning in Meiji Japan: the decline and transformation of the kangaku juku (Copenhagen: NIAS Press, 2003). Her current project is a cultural history of the violin in Japan, and she has published articles on the subject in The Strad and RIME (Research & Issues in Music Education).
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