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Holy cow!: the miraculous cures of animals in late medieval England1

2009; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 16; Issue: 6 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/13507480903368145

1469-8293

Briony Aitchison,

Historical Studies and Socio-cultural Analysis

Abstract Interactions between saints and animals have been the focus of modern scholarship, yet an important aspect has been neglected, namely that of the saint as healer of animals, when a third party has requested help on behalf of the animal. This article therefore examines, through examples drawn from saints' Vitae and other sources, the types of animals for which saintly intervention was sought, the ailments from which they suffered, and the form which their cure took, in order to understand why medieval people turned to the saints when their animals were ill. An examination of this relationship between saint and animal will not only elucidate the role of saint as thaumaturge, but will also shed light on the veterinary aspect of animal welfare. Keywords: miraclescure of animalssaints and animalssaint as thaumaturgemedieval England Notes 1. I am grateful to Chris Given-Wilson, Simone Macdougall, and Christian Harding for their helpful comments. My thanks also to Robert Bartlett, for answering my many questions regarding saints and animals. 2. , Wholly Animals, 76. The Latin can be found in , Patrologia Latina, 210–13. This story is very similar to that told of St Gerasimus and the lion, and thus it is possible that due to the similarities of their names (the late Latin form of Jerome being Geronimus) Jerome acquired the lion through confusion between the two saints, , Beasts and Saints, x; , Holy and Noble Beasts, 12 n.4. 3. This was due not only to its inclusion in two of the most popular and influential books of the thirteenth century – Vincent of Beauvais' Speculum Historiale and the Legenda Aurea of Jacobus of Voragine, Archbishop of Genoa – but also to its frequent representation in art between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, ibid., 11–13. Rather interestingly, the portrayals of St Jerome in art amplify the part played by the saint, for gone are the monks whom Jerome directed to treat the paw, who might divert attention from the saint. See ibid., 16–17. 4. One thinks also of St Werburga and the geese, and St Roch and the dog. 5. For example, in the British Isles, St Cuthbert and Godric of Finchale, on the continent most famously St Francis of Assisi. 6. See, for example, Salter, Holy and Noble Beasts, esp. 11–24, 39–52; , Beast Within, 168–78. 7. , Saints and Animals, 14. 8. See, for example, , Traces on the Rhodian Shore, 309–11; Salter, Holy and Noble Beasts, 25–32; , Bêtes et Hommes, 164–76. 9. See, for example, , St Francis: Nature Mystic; Alexander, Saints and Animals; , Bestiaire Chrétien, esp. 48–60, 138–55. 10. Indeed, David N. Bell's Wholly Animals includes only five stories where an owner has approached the saint, of which only two are concerned with a sick animal (soldiers take a mad horse to St Fortunus to be cured [58–9] and a camel is brought to Shenoute the Great as she will not suckle her calf [114–15]), whilst Helen Waddell's Beasts and Saints includes no examples of people approaching saints on behalf of an animal. 11. , White Magic, 58–70, 106. 12. , Miracles and the Medieval Mind, 72. For the miracles of St William concerning animals, see , Life and Miracles of St William, 152–4, 160–1, 258–60. 13. There are some 12 stories where animals are cured or brought back to life, of which nine fall into my category, whereby aid was requested by a third person. See , Materials for the History of Thomas Becket, I, 343–44, 358–9, 388, 389, 391–3, 415–16, 528–9, 536–7; II, 144; , Thómas Saga Erkibyskups, 140–7. 14. For instance, when establishing the social milieu of people attending shrines, he notes that 'pigs and cattle were usually associated with the lower classes but horses and falcons were "upper class" creatures', , Miracles and Pilgrims, 118. 15. The only other animals to be mentioned by Ronald C. Finucane are a peacock and cattle, ibid., 94–5. 16. , "Cantilupe as Thaumaturge," 143. I have counted another 26 miraculous cures of animals attributed to this saint, that concerning the palfrey of Robert de Ros being given twice, , Acta Sanctorum, October I, 653–93. 17. Alexander, Saints and Animals, esp. 80–4. He also examines in detail the stories of the resurrection of geese, ibid., 85–112. 18. , Histoire de la Médecine Vétérinaire, 12–20. 19. , Histoire de la Médecine Vétérinaire, 104–10. Indeed, Frederick Smith is somewhat scathing of such charms and incantations, writing 'It is impossible to read with patience of the grip she [the Church] exercised for centuries over the mind of Europe by her incantations and superstitious practices', , Early History of Veterinary Literature, 70. 20. , Evolution of the Veterinary Art, 113–14. 21. The miracles of Thomas Becket record a starling which invoked the aid of the saint when it was seized by a kite, as it had been taught the words by its mistress, Robertson, Materials for the History of Thomas Becket, I, 529–30. 22. Namely the Vitae of William of Norwich (late twelfth century), Thomas Becket (late twelfth century), Wulftsan (c.1240), Simon de Montfort (late thirteenth century), Thomas Cantilupe (late thirteenth to early fourteenth century), and King Henry VI (late fifteenth century). 23. Finucane, Miracles and Pilgrims, 95; Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, October I, 674. 24. Thomas of Monmouth, Life and Miracles of St William, 153–4, 160. 25. Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, October I, 672, 673, 680. 26. , Vita Wulfstani, 151–3; , Miracles of Simon de Montfort, 68. 27. Robertson, Materials for the History of Thomas Becket, I, 388 528–9; Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, October I, 674; , Miracles of King Henry VI, 194. 28. Magnússon, Thómas Saga Erikbyskups, 142–3; Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, October I, 674; Finucane, "Cantilupe as Thaumaturge," 143. 29. Magnússon, Thómas Saga Erikbyskups, 142–3; Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, October I, 674; Finucane, "Cantilupe as Thaumaturge," 143; Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, October I, 654, 661, 665, 672, 674, 677, 678, 681, 693. The time over which the animals lay dead varied from merely four hours to two days and nights. 30. Knox and Leslie, Miracles of King Henry VI, 132. The saints commonly restored animals to life, and not always because the owner had prayed for it. For instance, when a pet lamb was slaughtered after it fell from a stool, its owner gave it to his godson 'from regard of piety and the Martyr [St Thomas Becket]'. The cadaver was carried away to the house of a poor woman, and the next day the lamb was restored to life. Robertson, Materials for the History of Becket, I, 343. 31. Knox and Leslie, Miracles of King Henry VI, 132. The saints commonly restored animals to life, and not always because the owner had prayed for it. For instance, when a pet lamb was slaughtered after it fell from a stool, its owner gave it to his godson 'from regard of piety and the Martyr [St Thomas Becket]'. The cadaver was carried away to the house of a poor woman, and the next day the lamb was restored to life. Robertson, Materials for the History of Becket, I, 343, I, 415–16; Knox and Leslie, Miracles of King Henry VI, 41. 32. British Library MS Sloane , f.68r. Candlemas (2 February) was the day that all the Church's candles for the year were blessed. By washing his hands in this water, the practitioner was effectively blessing his hands for a year. 33. William of Malmesbury, Vita Wulfstani, 151. Indeed, in the miracles of Thomas Becket and Thomas Cantilupe, two saints whose cults were well established, the majority of people seeking cures for their animals were from outside the diocese. In contrast, of the five people to seek the aid of William of Norwich, only one was not local – the sacrist of Canterbury, who was in Norwich when his palfrey became ill, Thomas of Monmouth, Life and Miracles of St William, 160. 34. William of Malmesbury, Vita Wulfstani, 151. Indeed, in the miracles of Thomas Becket and Thomas Cantilupe, two saints whose cults were well established, the majority of people seeking cures for their animals were from outside the diocese. In contrast, of the five people to seek the aid of William of Norwich, only one was not local – the sacrist of Canterbury, who was in Norwich when his palfrey became ill, Thomas of Monmouth, Life and Miracles of St William, 160, 154. 35. Alternatively, it could be rolled into a coil, Finucane, Miracles and Pilgrims, 95. 36. Alternatively, it could be rolled into a coil, Finucane, Miracles and Pilgrims, 96. 37. , 292; , "Wardrobe and Household," 409. 38. Finucane, Miracles and Pilgrims, 96. 39. , English at Play, 56. 40. Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, October I, 678. 41. Mclean, English at Play, 56. 42. Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, October I, 680. 43. Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, October I, 667; , "Edward I," 26. 44. Finucane, Miracles and Pilgrims, 95. 45. Robertson, Materials for the History of Thomas Becket, I, 388; , Records of Wardrobe and Household, 38. This latter entry appears in substantially the same form in a counter-roll of the daily expenses of the royal household, printed in Taylor, "Edward I," 26 n.22. 46. , The Saint of London, 132, 138. 47. Robertson, Materials for the History of Becket, II, 144. 48. Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, October IV, 544. 49. , Mediæval England, 297. 50. Finucane, Miracles and Pilgrims, 97. The custom of taking waxen images of human limbs, bodies, and heads to be hung in a church or cathedral is a practice which continues today. 51. Finucane, Miracles and Pilgrims, 97. The custom of taking waxen images of human limbs, bodies, and heads to be hung in a church or cathedral is a practice which continues today 52. , The Abbot's House, 10. The relevant extract from Westminster Muniments MS 24512 is cited in n.3. 53. , Miracles of Our Lady of Rocamadour, 187. 54. Robertson, Materials for the History of Thomas Becket, I, 528–9. 55. McLean, English at Play, 56; Champollion-Figeac, Louis et Charles, 93. 56. , "Dogs of Yesteryear," 118. 57. , Histoire de la Médecine Vétérinaire, 14. 58. , Anglo-Saxon Medicine, 138. 59. Inflammation of the laminar structures of the horse's hoof. 60. British Library MS Sloane , ff.90v–91r. The Hippolytus mentioned here is probably St Hippolytus of Rome, the patron saint of horses. In the fifteenth-century treatise The Boke of Marchalsi his legend is adapted for use in a veterinary work, where the author states that St Hippolytus lived with wild horses for 14 years. He prayed to God for knowledge of keeping horses, in order that he might instruct others in the art, and also prayed to be baptised. An angel came to perform the baptism, and told Hippolytus to go to King Herod, who, upon learning that the saint had lived amongst wild horses, tied the saint to four wild horses to see if they would tear him apart – but the horses refused to harm the saint under all provocation, , Boke of Marchalsi, 21–3. 61. Halliwell, Miracles of Simon de Montfort, 68–9. A coin was then bent in honour of this miracle. 62. Finucane, Miracles and Pilgrims, 89–90. 63. Moulé, Histoire de la Médecine Vétérinaire, 18. 64. , Memorials of Ripon, 167–8, 167 n.2. 65. , Memorials of Ripon, 167 n.1. There was a similar superstition of using the keys of chapels to brand horses for pest, ibid. Indeed, the use of church keys to cure ailments was a practice that continued long after the end of the Middle Ages, , Veterinary Medicine, 212. 66. Fowler, Memorials of Ripon, 167. 67. A sprain or strain. Willy Louis Braekman appears to give an erroneous reading of 'wrauth' for this ailment, but 'wranch', as found in , Popular Medicine, 96, would seem to be the correct reading, especially as one remedy for this ailment involved hanging a written charm about the foot of the horse, , Of Hawks and Horses, 96. 68. A sprain or strain. Willy Louis Braekman appears to give an erroneous reading of 'wrauth' for this ailment, but 'wranch', as found in , Popular Medicine, 96, would seem to be the correct reading, especially as one remedy for this ailment involved hanging a written charm about the foot of the horse, , Of Hawks and Horses, 95, 98. 69. For instance, of the seven remedies for this ailment found in British Library MS Sloane 3285, five of them are charms (ff.89r–v), whilst five of the eight remedies in another fifteenth-century collection are also charms, Braekman, Of Hawks and Horses, 91–2, 96–7, 102. 70. See British Library MSS Cotton Julius D.VIII, f. (where St Job's friends' souls are invoked, not that of his ancestors) and Royal .XXXII, f.129v; Braekman, Of Hawks and Horses, 92; , Late Middle English Treatise on Horses, 99 (where this remedy was also recommended for feloun, a suppurative sore). 71. See British Library MSS Cotton Julius D.VIII, f. (where St Job's friends' souls are invoked, not that of his ancestors) and Royal .XXXII, f.129v; Braekman, Of Hawks and Horses, 92; , Late Middle English Treatise on Horses, 99 (where this remedy was also recommended for feloun, a suppurative sore), 91–3. In addition to being invoked against farcy, the diminishing (and augmenting) charm of St Job was commonly used against worms in both human and horse medicine, Hunt, Popular Medicine, 81. For a list of sources containing Job charms, for both animals and humans, see , Manual of Writings in Middle English, 3879. 72. Odenstedt, Boke of Marchalsi, 33–4. 73. Odenstedt, Boke of Marchalsi, 33–4, 32–5. 74. Johnstone, "Wardrobe and Household," 409. 75. See, for example, , Miracles and the Medieval Mind, 108, where pilgrims turned to St Frideswide after Thomas Becket failed to help them. 76. Halliwell, Miracles of Simon de Montfort, 98; Knox and Leslie, Miracles of King Henry VI, 194. 77. Robertson, Materials for the History of Thomas Becket, I, 389; Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, October I, 669. 78. , "Cantilupe as Thaumaturge," 143. 79. , "Cantilupe as Thaumaturge," 143 80. One should bear in mind, however, that animals tend to recover more quickly from ailments than humans. 81. , Sainthood in the Later Middle Ages, 445; Finucane, Miracles and Pilgrims, 69. 82. See , Sainthood in the Later Middle Ages, 445; Finucane, Miracles and Pilgrims, 75. In some instances this could be the result of not performing the promised vow completely, or perhaps of not having complete faith in the powers of the saint. It is certainly interesting that a partial cure by a saint was viewed as a miracle and success, whereas a partial cure by a physician would be deemed a failure. 83. See below. 84. Robertson, Materials for the History of Thomas Becket, I, 187–8. Indeed, when Richard of Lynn, monk of Norwich, approached St William of Norwich for a cure of his fever, the saint requested his best candles as an oblation, but because Richard prevaricated, the saint came to him in a vision, giving him a strike on the head which killed him, Thomas of Monmouth, Life and Miracles of St William, 136–45. 85. Robertson, Materials for the History of Thomas Becket, I, 537–8. 86. Thomas of Monmouth, Life and Miracles of St William, 259. 87. Magnússon, Thómas Saga Erkibyskups, 140–7. It is noteworthy that the function of the bird is recognised. 88. Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, October I, 689. Similarly, in France in the eighth century a man whose ox fell under the yoke ordered his wife to go and find something with which to skin it, for the ox lay dying on the ground for a considerable time. His wife, however, disobeyed her husband, and instead beseeched St Wulfran (d. before 704), measuring the ox from the top of its horns to its bottommost buttocks, promising to give the saint a candle of the same length, ibid., March III, 160. 89. British Library MS Cotton Julius D.VIII, f.113v–14r. 90. The treatise only survives in fifteenth-century manuscripts, yet the colophon referring to Prince Edward could refer to any of the first four post-Conquest King Edwards, making it difficult to date the original, , "'Dancus Rex' in English," 357 n.7. It is believed, however, that the treatise is a copy of a work mentioned in a Norman-French poem of c.1240 upon the art of keeping birds of prey, , A Perfect Booke, vii. 91. , "The Booke of Hawkyng," 19. Both daisy and moneywort were thought to be good for wounds, , Modern Herbal, 247, 549. A similar remedy recommended by Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) gave added support to the broken leg by enclosing the whole in a splint made from the feather of a vulture's wing, , On Animals, 1614. 92. , "Animals in Medieval Perception," 63. 93. Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, April I, 663. 94. Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, April I, October I, 674, 680, 682, 684, 692. 95. Robertson, Materials for the History of Becket, I, 179. For negative attitudes towards physicians and surgeons see Finucane, Miracles and Pilgrims, 63–7. 96. , Master of Game, 86. Only seven versions of madness are actually discussed. It is interesting that at the end of the nineteenth century if a dog had bitten another animal or a human it was not to be immediately destroyed but quarantined for nine to 15 days, by which time a rabid dog would be dead, , 81. 97. British Library MS Harley , f.31r. 98. , "Early History of the Veterinary Surgeon," 628. 99. Thomas of Monmouth, Life and Miracles of St William, 153. 100. , Beasts, 17. 101. , Book of Sainte Foy, 89–90. 102. Swaen, "The Booke of Hawkyng," 17. The same charm can be found in Albertus Magnus' De animalibus, but here it is to protect the hawk against the eagle – as it is in the twelfth-century treatise by Gerardus Falconarius. Albertus Magnus, On Animals, 1607; , Dancus Rex, Guillelmus Falconarius, Gerardus Falconarius, 228. Thus it can be seen that the charm has been adapted to English usage. 103. Swaen, "The Booke of Hawkyng," 17. Similar versions are found in both Albertus Magnus, On Animals, 1607, and Tilander, Dancus Rex, Guillelmus Falconarius, Gerardus Falconarius, 226. 104. Words could be powerful. A charm for farcy in a fifteenth-century treatise involved saying 'mala magubula mala magubula' into the horse's ear three times, along with three pater nosters, Braekman, 96; Hunt, Popular Medicine, 96. The words appear to be a mixture of Latin and gibberish, and although, as Malcolm Laurence Cameron suggests, the unintelligibility of the words in such charms probably contributed to their efficacy, there is also a rhythm to the words, the chanting of which helped make the spell, Cameron, Anglo-Saxon Medicine, 134. 105. Byerly and Byerly, Records of the Wardrobe and Household, 227, 232–4. Humans, too, sought the protection of saints; before embarking on a voyage a merchant of Newcastle would visit the shrine of St Oswin at Tynemouth, in order to offer a candle and commend himself and his goods to the protection of the saint, , England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings, 464. 106. Byerly and Byerly, Records of the Wardrobe and Household, 227. 107. Magnússon, Thómas Saga Erkibyskups, 143. 108. Finucane, Miracles and Pilgrims, 98. 109. The large total of human fragments compared with animal fragments is not surprising, however, given that many more miracle cures were performed for humans than for animals. For example, in the miracles of William of Norwich 77 human cures were recorded, but only five for animals. Indeed, in the miracles of Thomas Becket the difference was even greater, with only nine miraculous cures of animals being recorded, compared with the 518 human cures. 110. Finucane, Miracles and Pilgrims, 98. 111. Image reproduced in Morrison, Beasts, 17. 112. Image reproduced in Morrison, Beasts, 17 113. Animals such as horses, dogs, pigs, cows, sheep, and goats, , Louis et Charles, 93 n.3.