Imperial ‘deep play’: reading sport and visions of the five empires of the ‘New World’, 1919–1941
2011; Routledge; Volume: 28; Issue: 17 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/09523367.2011.627191
ISSN1743-9035
Autores Tópico(s)Sports and Physical Education Studies
ResumoAbstract In the period between the First World War and the Second World War the US became the globe's leading power and sought to extend its cultural influence, particularly around the Pacific Rim and in Latin America. Following the lead of Great Britain, the US employed sport as a tool of empire. In the process an emerging American empire came into sporting conflicts with the remnants of older Iberian and Chinese empires, the outposts of a still significant British Empire, and the rising power of a new Japanese empire. In confronting imperial competitors American conceptions of the cultural power of sport shaped a series of fascinating interchanges. These exchanges were far more than mere amusements. In fact, the 'deep play' of these empires reveals the contours of the international cultural and political transitions that reshaped global relations in an era of rapid transitions. In the process, sport revealed imperial and national patterns and trends. Keywords: nationalismimperialismglobalisationinternational contestsOlympics Notes 1. Bentham, The Theory of Legislation, 106. 2. Geertz, 'Deep Play', 15; Geertz, 'Deep Play', 432–3. 3. For an interesting survey of the clash of 'empires' around the globe see the first few chapters of Johnson, Modern Times. 4. Bakewell, A History of Latin America. 5. Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers. 6. Barber and Henshall. The Last War of Empires; Davidann, Cultural Diplomacy in US-Japanese Relations; Willmott, Empires in the Balance; Spector, Eagle against the Sun; Hoyt, Japan's War; Gruhl, Imperial Japan's World War Two. 7. Calichman, Overcoming Modernity; Harootunian, Overcome by Modernity; Tansman, The Culture of Japanese Fascism. 8. On American claims that they could ignore the standard patterns of empire, see Carter, Revolt Against Destiny. For a standard history of the American empire, see Iriye, The Globalizing of America. 9. Keys, Globalizing Sport; Keys, 'Spreading Peace, Democracy, and Coca Cola®'. 10. Bentham, The Theory of Legislation, 106. For an insightful background into the relation of gambling and the creation for modern 'rule-based' sports see Vamplew, 'Playing with the Rules'. See, also, Tranter, Sport, Economy, and Society in Britain; Holt, Sport and the British. 11. Geertz, 'Deep Play', 15. 12. Indeed, in thrusting sport under gaze of 'new' cultural studies Geertz radically transformed the meaning of Bentham's concept of 'deep play' from a behaviour the enlightened should condemn into an attitude towards life that the enlightened should embrace. Among the wide-ranging texts that reveal Geertz's influence see Ackerman, Deep Play; Abramason and Fletcher, 'Rock-Climbing as Epic and Deep Eco-Play'; Booth, The Field; Dyreson, Making the American Team; Gorn, The Manly Art; Kretchmar, 'Movement Subcultures'; Oriard, King Football; Oriard, 'Muhammad Ali'; Oriard, Reading Football; Phillips, 'Deconstructing Sport History'; Shweder and Good, Clifford Geertz, By His Colleagues. 13. Hughes, Tom Brown's Schooldays. 14. While no clear evidence existed that sport built the British or the American empires, that belief exercised a powerful hold on the minds of the Anglo-American ruling classes from the Victorian age into the twentieth century. Mangan, The Games Ethic and Imperialism. Also useful is Guttmann, Games and Empires. 15. Dyreson, Crafting Patriotism for Global Domination; Dyreson, 'Icons of Liberty or Objects of Desire?'; Dyreson, 'Globalizing the Nation-Making Process'; Dyreson, 'American Ideas About Race and Olympic Races'; Dyreson, 'Selling American Civilization'; Dyreson, 'Scripting the American Olympic Story-Telling Formula'; Dyreson, 'Marketing National Identity'; Pope, Patriotic Games. 16. Great Britain certainly found itself in this quandary at times. See, for instance, Llewellyn, 'A Nation Divided'; Llewellyn, 'Chariots of Discord:'. 17. Beck, Scoring for Britain; Guttmann, Games and Empires; Guttmann, The Olympics; Senn, Power, Politics, and the Olympic Games. 18. James, Beyond a Boundary. For a variety of views on James see Rosengarten, Urbane Revolutionary; Dhondy, C.L.R. James; St Louis, Rethinking Race, Politics, and Poetics; Farred, What's My Name?; Farred, Rethinking C.L.R. James; Worcester, C.L.R. James; Buhle, C.L.R. James. 19. Geertz, 'Deep Play', 26. 20. My pedestrian language skills beyond English have allowed me to investigate some Mexican notions of sport and identity. However, Portugese, not to mention Chinese and Japanese, reside beyond my linguistic abilities: Dyreson, '"Imperishable Sports History"?'. 21. Dyreson, Crafting Patriotism. 22. Hildebrand, 'The Geography of Games'. 23. Tunis, Democracy and Sport. 24. Hildebrand,'The Geography of Games'. Quotations from pages 100, 140–1. 25. Tunis, Democracy and Sport. Quotations from pages 40, 50. 26. Hildebrand, 'The Geography of Games', 89. 27. Tunis, Democracy and Sport. Quotations from pages 10, 28. 28. A trove of materials from these data collections can be found in several places at the National Archives and Records Administration II facility in College Park, Maryland. The Department of Commerce materials in the Records of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce; General Records of the Department of Commerce, Record Group 151; provides one set of sources (hereafter RG 151, NACP). The Department of State materials the State Department Decimal Files, 811.4063 Olympic Games; Record Group 59; provides another set (hereafter RG 59, NACP). State Department Decimal File information can also be found in the individual country files at 811.4063; Record Group 59; Foreign Relations Microfilm Files (hereafter RG 59, FRMF, NACP). Some of these materials have been published as well. The Government Printing Office issued several reports based on the data, including, US Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, European Market for Sporting and Athletic Goods: Trade Information Bulletin – No. 179 (January 21, 1924), by C.J. North, Supplement to Commerce Reports (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1924), 1–30; US Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Market for Athletic Goods in Canada and Newfoundland: Trade Information Bulletin – No. 230 (May 19,1924), by C.J. North, Supplement to Commerce Reports (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1924), 1–13; US Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Latin American Market for Sporting and Athletic Goods: Trade Information Bulletin – No. 232 (May 26, 1924), by C.J. North, Supplement to Commerce Reports (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1924), 1–34; US Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Far Eastern Market for Sporting and Athletic Goods: Trade Information Bulletin – No. 308 (January 1925), by C.J. North, Supplement to Commerce Reports (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1925), 1–30; US Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Market for Sporting and Athletic Goods in Africa and Near East: Trade Information Bulletin – No. 319 (February 1925), by C.J. North, Supplement to Commerce Reports (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1925), 1–13. 29. On Hoover, the Commerce Department, and the modernisation of American economic policy see Brandes, Herbert Hoover and Economic Diplomacy; Clements, Hoover, Conservation, and Consumerism; Murray, The Politics of Normalcy; Wilson, American Business and Foreign Policy; Wilson, Herbert Hoover. 30. Arbena, Sport and Society in Latin America; Arbena, 'Sport, Development, and Mexican Nationalism'; Carter, The Quality of Home Runs; Echevarría, The Pride of Havana; Klein, Sugarball; Regalado, Viva Baseball!; Ruck, The Tropic of Baseball; Guttmann and Thompson, Japanese Sports; Guttmann, Games and Empires. 31. I take my cues on 'soft power' from the concept's guru, Joseph Nye. See Nye, Bound to Lead; Nye, The Powers to Lead; Nye, Soft Power: The Illusion of American Empire; Nye, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. 32. For histories and analyses of these federal campaigns to Americanise the globe through sport see Dyreson, 'Johnny Weissmuller and the Old Global Capitalism'; Dyreson, 'Marketing Weissmuller to the World'; Dyreson, 'Globalizing American Sporting Culture'; Dyreson, 'Mapping an Empire of Baseball'; Dyreson, Crafting Patriotism for Global Domination. 33. Murray, The World's Game. 34. Hall, Britain, America, and Arms Control. 35. Geertz asserts: 'The culture of people is an ensemble of texts, themselves ensembles, which the anthropologist strains to read over the shoulders of those to who they properly belong'. In this case, I am straining read the textual ensembles over the shoulders of a previous American generation who themselves were straining to read over the shoulders of the textual ensembles assembled by the rivals in the Americas and the Pacific. Geertz, 'Deep Play', 29. 36. Ibid., 27. 37. My central text for Latin America is 'Latin America's Football Jubilation', Literary Digest, 11 Aug. 1928, 13–14. 38. Galeano, Soccer in Sun and Shadow, 30. 39. Bakewell, A History of Latin America. 40. On Latin American positivism see Wiarda, The Soul of Latin America. 41. Torres, 'If We Had Had Our Argentine Team Here!'; Torres, 'The Latin American "Olympic Explosion" of the 1920s'; Torres, '"Spreading the Olympic Idea" to Latin America'; Torres, 'Stymied Expectations'; Torres, 'Tribulations and Achievements'. 42. Murray, The World's Game; Lever, Soccer Madness; Mason, Passion of the People?; Miller and Crolley, Football in the Americas. 43. For enlightenment on this connection see Galeano, Soccer in Sun and Shadow, 20–9. See, also, the interesting conjunction in Guttmann, Sports, 167–79. 44. Bakewell, A History of Latin America. 45. Lever, Soccer Madness; Mason, Passion of the People?; Miller and Crolley, Football in the Americas; Murray, The World's Game. 46. 'Montevideo Celebrates Victory', New York Times, 10 June 1924; '60,000 See Uruguay Win in Soccer Final', New York Times, 10 June 1924; 'Uruguay's Eleven Wins Soccer Title: Beats Argentina, 2 to 1, in Olympics and Keeps Crown It Won in 1924; 230 Police are on Guard', New York Times, 14 June 1928, p. 32. 47. 'Uruguay Soccer Team Plans An Invasion of This Country', New York Times, 26 June 1924; 'Uruguayans to Play Here', New York Times, 11 Feb. 1927; 'Uruguay Triumphs in Soccer Debut, 6–1', New York Times, 21 March 1927; 'Police Riot Squad Ends Soccer Melee', New York Times, 28 March 1927; 'Star Soccer Team Picked; American League Eleven Chosen for Game With Uruguay Saturday', New York Times, 29 March 1927; 'Uruguayan Consul Mends Soccer Rift', New York Times, 30 March 1927; 'Four Hurt in Riot at Soccer Contest', New York Times, 20 April 1927; 'Uruguayan Consul Deplores Outbreak', New York Times, 21 April 1927; 'Uruguay Defeats Wanderers, 2 to 1', New York Times, 31 May 1927; 'U.S. Centre of Soccer Activity, Though Not a Leader in Sport; Austria, Czechoslovakia, Uruguay, Palestine, Canada and Ireland Send Teams Here as a Gesture of Friendliness', New York Times, 20 July 1927; 'Growth of Soccer Rapid in Past Year; Five Countries Sent Powerful Teams to US – Big League Ball Parks Now Used', New York Times, 1 Jan. 1928. 48. 'US Soccer Team Is Selected To Compete for World's Title', New York Times, 5 May 1930; 'US Soccer Players Receive Warm Welcome in Montevideo', New York Times, 2 July 1930; 'US Favorite to Win World's Soccer Title; Brazil and Paraguay Triumph at Montevideo', New York Times, 21 July 1930; 'Argentina Defeats US Team In World's Title Soccer, 6–1', New York Times, 27 July 1930; 'Uruguay Annexes Title at Soccer; 70,000 Spectators See Argentina Lose Contest for World Honors by 4–2', New York Times, 31 July 1930. 49. 'Fix Dates for Greater Texas and Pan-American Expo Major Sports Events', Dallas Morning News, 16 May 1937; 'Jim Farley Named Honorary Referee for Pan-American Track, Field Carnival', Dallas Morning News, 27 April 1937; George White, 'Sport Broadcast', Dallas Morning News, 16 May 1937; press releases on the Pan American Soccer Tournament, 1937; Folder, Sports–Soccer, Box 107, Texas Centennial Exposition, Dallas Historical Society, Dallas, TX. 50. Press releases on the Pan American Soccer Tournament, 1937; Folder, Sports–Soccer, Box 107, Texas Centennial Exposition, Dallas Historical Society, Dallas, TX; Telegram from the US Secretary of State (Cordell Hull) to the American Embassy in Lima, Peru, 12 June 1937; Memorandum from the US Department of State, Division of the American Republics, 11 June 1937; Memorandum from R.M. de Lambert, Charge d'Affaires, US Embassy in Peru, to the US Secretary of State (Cordell Hull), 21 June 1937; Memorandum from the US Department of State, Division of the American Republics, to Mr. Duggan, 1 July 1937; Memorandum from the William Dawson, US Embassy in Columbia, to the US Secretary of State (Cordell Hull), 28 June 1937; State Department Decimal Files, 811.4063/3, 6, Box 5025, State Department Records Division, Record Group 59, National Archives and Record Administration II, College Park, MD. 51. Charles Burton, 'Veteran Clarence DeMar Removed From US Squad for Pan-American Games', Dallas Morning News, 10 July 1937; McClelland, 'Pan American Games Star Athletes'; Charles Burton, 'Argentine Soccer Team Swamps United States, 9–1', Dallas Morning News, 16 July 1937; 'Canadians Nose Out US Soccer Team, 3–2; Play Argentina Sunday', Dallas Morning News, 17 July 1937; 'Mel Porter Favoured to Win 26-Mile Marathon Tonight', Dallas Morning News, 18 July 1937; Charles Burton, 'Dengis Wins Marathon', Dallas Morning News, 19 July 1937; 'US Star Receives Reward for Fine Victory', Dallas Morning News, 19 July 1937. 52. 'Soccer Champs Clash Sunday in Free Game', Dallas Morning News, 23 July 1937; 'Fair Employs Free Acts to Swell Crowds', Dallas Morning News, 25 July 1937; Charles Burton, 'Covering Sports', Dallas Morning News, 25 July 1937; 'Argentine Soccer Team Makes Last Appearance Tonight', Dallas Morning News, 25 July 1937; Charles Burton, 'Argentine Soccer Club Smashes Tex-Mex All-Stars, 13–0, in Farewell Game', Dallas Morning News, 26 July 1937. 53. 'The broadened outlook in the Southwest was vividly demonstrated on the final night of the Pan American games, when 20,000 Texans sat in the great Cotton Bowl at the exposition and frantically cheered the skill and sportsmanship of the champion soccer teams', opined the editors of Southwest Business. 'Athletes form the two extremities of the New World, playing a Pan American championship game in Dallas!', the editors continued. 'It was an enriching experience for Dallas and the Southwest'. Dallas, from their vantage, had become the capital of the new Pan-American zone of the Western hemisphere. 'Other sections of the country will continue to expect big things in the theater, in athletics, in music and in art to come out of Dallas', Southwest Business contended. 'A reputation has been created and a will to live up to that reputation has been developed', the magazine concluded. 'It Has Happened Here', 29. 54. See, for instance, a classic of this genre in a story about the Argentine squad for the 1937 Dallas Pan-American tourney: D.G. Ruggles, 'Sure Argentine Soccer Teams Are Good; It's National Game', Dallas Morning News, 11 July 1937. See, also, 'Stamp News: Uruguay Celebrates Soccer', 618. The 1937 South American Handbook in its 655 pages included some very interesting material on Latin American soccer. 55. John Kieran, 'Sportsmen and Sports', Life, 28 June 1928, 21–2. 56. 'Peruvian Team Hailed; Congratulated by President on Olympic Soccer Victory', New York Times, 8 Aug. 1936; 'Olympic Highlights in Events Yesterday', New York Times, 9 Aug. 1936; 'Lima Mob Stones German Consulate; City in Turmoil When Peru's Soccer Team Quits Olympics, Refusing to Replay Game', New York Times, 11 Aug. 1936; Otto D. Tolischus, 'Olympic Spirit Shattered', New York Times, 11 Aug. 1936; 'Peruvian Capital Quiet', New York Times, 12 Aug. 1936; 'Peruvian Eleven to Play in Berlin; Team Stays Out of Olympics, but Diplomat Arranges a 'Friendship' Soccer Game', New York Times, 14 Aug. 1936. 57. Tunis, Democracy and Sport. Quotations from pages 10, 28. From both a historic and a contemporary perspective, Eduardo Galeano shares this view of Latin American racial progressiveness on soccer pitches in Soccer in Sun and Shadow. 58. When Texas oilmen were negotiating to bring South American soccer teams to segregated Dallas, the US State Department warned the Texans that quite a few 'negroes' played on some of the national squads. Confidential Telegram from Delambert to the US Secretary of State, 6 June 1937; State Department Decimal Files, 811.4063/3, Box 5025, State Department Records Division, Record Group 59, National Archives and Record Administration II, College Park, MD. 59. 'Latin America's Football Jubilation', 13–14. 60. Ibid. 61. This is a reference to a fascinating 2008 book chronicling the history of China's embrace of the Olympics since 1895: Xu, Olympic Dreams. 62. Ibid. 63. Fenby, Modern China; Spence, The Search for Modern China; Van de Ven, War and Nationalism in China. 64. As several excellent sources have noted, the 'sick man' stereotype was not merely a Western imposition but an internal Chinese critique by modernising reformers. Much of China's twentieth-century devotion to sport sprang from efforts to overcome this perceived 'flaw' in Chinese civilization'. Brownell, Training the Body for China; Hong, Sport, Nationalism and Orientalism; Hong, Footbinding, Feminism, and Freedom; Jinxia, Women, Sport, and Modern China; Morris, Marrow of the Nation; Xu, Olympic Dreams. 65. For a 'classic' of the type see Brown, 'Teaching the World to Play', 689–693. 66. Lockwood, 'The Chinese Olympic Games'; Seavy, 'Public Opinion'; 'By the Way', 836. 67. As cited in Morris, Marrow of the Nation, 167; Morris, '"I Can Compete!' ", 545. 68. 'Nanking Athletic Plant Costing $2,000,000 To House Chinese National Meet in October', New York Times, 29 March 1931. 69. 'Athletics in the Orient', New York Times, 16 Dec. 1912; 'Far Eastern Athletes', New York Times, 1 Feb. 1913. For historical analyses of the early Far Eastern Championship Games, as they were officially dubbed, see Hong, 'The Origin of the Asian Games: Power and Politics', in Hong, Sport, Nationalism, and Orientalism, xiii–xxiv; Morris, Marrow of the Nation; Gems, The Athletic Crusade. 70. 'Replacing such lone-hand games as jiu-jitsu by games of brotherly teamwork, they tend to replace selfishness by self-sacrifice, to build character, to raise physique, to inspire national loyalty, to implant good fellowship among hostile tribes and peoples', wrote Catherine Mayo of the Americanising force of American sports. Mayo, 'Fair Play for the World'. 71. 'Fact and Comment', 332. 72. Also in 1922, the IOC tabbed Wang Zhengting, China's foreign minister and the chief of the Chinese National Amateur Athletic Federation (CNAAF), as China's first IOC member: Morris, Marrow of the Nation, 167–76; Morris, '"I Can Compete', 545–8. 73. George Orwell, 'The Sporting Spirit', Tribune (London), 14 Dec. 1945, as cited in Davidson, The Complete Works of George Orwell, vol. 17, 442. 74. Morris, Marrow of the Nation, 69–78, 96–8, 161–6; Hong, 'The Origin of the Asian Games', xiii–xxiv. 75. Morris, Marrow of the Nation, 167–76; Morris, '"I Can Compete', 545–8. 76. Morris, Marrow of the Nation, 167–76; Morris, '"I Can Compete', 545–50. 77. '100 Far East Athletes Arrive', New York Times, 7 July 1932; Arthur J. Daley, 'Curtis Will Open Olympics Saturday', New York Times, 24 July 1932; Arthur J. Daley, 'New Delegations Bring 300 to Camp', New York Times, 26 July 1932. A search covering July and August 1932 on NewspaperArchive.com, a site with more than 2,800 newspapers from across the United States, reveals only a score of stories that mention the Chinese at the Los Angeles Games. The stories are wire service reports that merely list China among the participants. 78. Dyreson, 'Marketing National Identity'; Welky, 'Vikings, Mermaids, and Little Brown Men'; Yamamoto, 'Cheers for Japanese Athletes'. 79. 'China to Compete in Olympics', New York Times, 14 Oct. 1934. The US spent $350,000 to send a team of more than 400 to the Berlin games, a per-capita figure that closely paralleled Chinese spending: 'Olympic Fund Problems'; 'Forth To War'. 80. A search covering July and August 1936 on NewspaperArchive.com found no stories that focused on the Chines entry and fewer than ten that even mentioned a Chinese presence. Those stories that did mention the Chinese did so only in passing or made them humorous sideshows to the main Olympic events: 'Athletes in Olympic Games', New York Times, 2 Aug. 1936; Arthur J. Daley, 'US Is Favored to Gain Major Honors in Berlin Olympics Opening Saturday', New York Times, 26 July 1936; Frederick T. Birchall, '100,000 Hail Hitler; US Athletes Avoid Nazi Salute to Him', New York Times, 2 Aug. 1936; Albion Ross, 'Attendance Tops the Million Mark', New York Times, 8 Aug. 1936; 'Wilson, Kara and Scrivani Gain in Boxing, But Rutecki Is Beaten', New York Times, 12 Aug. 1936; Frederick T. Birchall, 'Young Olympic Diving Champion Gives Grown-Up Radio Interview', New York Times, 13 Aug. 1936. 81. John Kieran, 'Sports of the Times', New York Times, 28 Oct. 1936. Kieran added China to a list created after the 1936 Olympics physiologist Charles Snyder of Johns Hopkins University. Snyder's allegedly scientific studies of the Olympics declared Germany a victor of the US and northern Europeans superior to all other groups. Snyder, an ardent eugenicist and committed scientific racist, wrote elaborately on the subject, but did not even bother to include the Chinese in his studies since they had never medalled in Olympic history: Snyder, 'The Real Winners In The 1936 Olympic Games'; Snyder, 'A Study In The Demographic Distribution of Cultural Achievement'. For an interpretation of Snyder and this sort of scientific racism see Dyreson, 'American Ideas About Race and Olympic Races'. 82. For a typical interpretation of non-athletic China from the American perspective see the reports filed by American Olympic sprinter Charles W. Paddock during his tour of China. Charles W. Paddock, 'Sprinting Around the World', The Saturday Evening Post 198 (5 Dec. 1925), 27, 62–8; Paddock, The Fastest Human, 201–16. 83. Millard wrote more than 20 books on China and East Asian issues, including one of the many tomes on the 'new China': Millard, The New China. For an assessment of Millard's enormous influence of American views of China in the first half of the twentieth century see Hamilton, 'The Missouri News Monopoly and American Altruism in China'. 84. Thomas F. Millard, 'Physical Change Affecting Chinese', New York Times, 6 Sept. 1925. 85. Millard, 'Physical Change Affecting Chinese'. 86. At the 1938 IOC meeting in Cairo, C.T. Wang, China's new IOC delegate and the Chinese ambassador to the US, argued that nations at war should be barred from putting on the Olympics. Wang wanted the Tokyo Games moved to another location since Japanese troops were waging total war deep inside China. 'Nothing in China', Time, 28 March 1938, 20. Whether or not Chinese efforts had any influence, Japan eventually abandoned its efforts to stage the 1940 Tokyo games. Collins, 'Special Issue: The Missing Olympics'. 87. 'Our Friendly Sports War with Great Britain', 46. 88. Throughout the inter-war period US Commerce Department officials salivated over the potential of the China market, even when they admitted, as the did in 1919, that US manufactures had made no inroads into the world's most largest group of consumers: 'Athletics in Far East; Its Spread Offers Opportunity for Sale of Sporting Goods', New York Times, 26 Oct. 1919. For other media accounts of these economic clashes see Diana Rice, 'Random Notes for Travelers, Around Boulder Dam a Great Playground will be Developed – The 1937 Trade Fair at London – New Andean Hotels', New York Times, 20 Dec. 1936; 'Britain's Exports Gain in November', New York Times, 3 Dec. 1932; 'Athletics in Far East; Its Spread Offers Opportunity for Sale of Sporting Goods', New York Times, 26 Oct. 1919; 'British to Show Their Industries', New York Times, 28 Jan. 1919; John W. White, 'Britain is Building up South American Trade', New York Times, 4 Feb. 1940. 89. Pope, Patriotic Games; Guttmann, Games and Empires; Dyreson, Making the American Team; Dyreson, 'Globalizing the Nation-Making Process'. 90. Hildebrand,'The Geography of Games', 89–144; Tunis, Democracy and Sport. 91. 'Sports in Japan', 17–18. 92. 'Our Friendly Sports War with Great Britain', 46. 93. See, for instance, Lewis, 'The Case of American Sport'. 94. Crozier,'The American Invasion of England'. 95. Robinson, 'England and the Olympic Games', 415. 96. Dyreson, 'Globalizing the Nation-Making Process'. 97. Records of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce; General Records of the Department of Commerce, RG 151. State Department Decimal Files, 811.4063 Olympic Games; RG 59. State Department Decimal File, 811.4063;RG 59, FRMF. US Department of Commerce, European Market for Sporting and Athletic Goods; US Department of Commerce, Latin American Market for Sporting and Athletic Goods; US Department of Commerce, Far Eastern Market for Sporting and Athletic Goods. 98. For detailed histories of these plans see Dyreson,' Johnny Weissmuller and the Old Global Capitalism'; Dyreson, 'Marketing Weissmuller to the World'; Dyreson, 'Globalizing American Sporting Culture'; Dyreson, 'Mapping an Empire of Baseball'; Dyreson, Crafting Patriotism for Global Domination. 99. For a fascinating case study of this process see 'Buys Our Sporting Goods; British Malaya Increased Imports of American Make in 1928, New York Times, 17 July 1929; and Hudson, British Malaya as a Market for Sporting Goods. 100. Nye, Bound to Lead; Nye, The Powers to Lead; Nye, Soft Power: The Illusion of American Empire; Nye, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. 101. Lawson Robertson, 'Rising Sons', Saturday Evening Post, 23 June 1935, 10–11, 67–8. 102. Guttmann and Thompson, Japanese Sports. 103. Davidann, Cultural Diplomacy in US-Japanese relations; Barber and Henshall, The Last War of Empires; Willmott, Empires in the Balance; Spector, Eagle against the Sun; Hoyt, Japan's War; Gruhl, Imperial Japan's World War Two. 104. Chauncy,'Japan Plays the American National Game', 118. 105. Crepeau, Baseball. 106. Suzuki, 'Japan's Record in Olympiad Histor', 38–44. 107. 'Japan's Swimmers Shone in Olympics; Dominated Men's Competition–American Girls Again Were Supreme', New York Times, 25 Dec. 1932. 108. Suzuki, 'Japan's Record in Olympiad History'; Guttmann and Thompson, Japanese Sports, 122–5; Allison Danzig, 'Japan's Natators Impress Observers', New York Times, 8 Aug. 1932; 'Japanese Triumph in Olympic Swim; Shatter Meet Record in Taking 800-Meter Relay Test as 10,000 Look On', New York Times,10 Aug. 1932; 'Japan's Natators Provided Feature; Victories in Five of Six Racing Events Were Turned in Chiefly by Youngsters', New York Times, 15 Aug. 1932. 109. Grantland Rice, 'Engineers Won for Japanese', Los Angeles Times, 21 Aug. 1932. 110. Bob Ray, 'Weissmuller Explains Japanese Success in Olympics', Los Angeles Times, 21 Aug. 1932. 111. Lawson Robertson, 'Rising Sons', 10–11. 112. Ibid., 67–68. 113. Ibid. 114. 'US Team to Visit Tokyo', New York Times, 25 Feb. 1935; Arthur J. Daley, 'US Swimming Comeback Unequaled in the Sport; Badly Beaten by Japan in 1932, America Is Likely to Turn Tables Next Year – Name Squad for Trip to Tokyo in August', New York Times, 8 April 1935, 25; 'National AAU Swim Titles to Be Decided in Detroit Meet Opening Friday', New York Times, 30 June 1935; 'US Swimmers Train for Meet in Tokyo', New York Times, 9 July 1935; 'US Swimmers Meet Japan's Team Today; Olympic Prospects to Be Gauged During Three-Day Contest in Tokyo Pool', New York Times, 17 Aug. 1935. 115. 'Medica Clips World Mark in 400 As US Mermen Cut Japan's Lead; Seattle Swimmer Covers Metric Distance in 4:45.2, Beating Negami by Touch – Americans Sharply Reduce Host Team's Margin to 22–20 as Drysdale and Relay Also Triumph', New York Times, 19 Aug. 1935; 'Two World Marks Are Bettered As Japanese Defeat US Mermen; Victors Annex Three of Four Final Events, Winning Three-Day Meet, 36 to 27', New York Times, 20 Aug. 1935; 'Tokyo Swim Meet was 1935 Feature; Japanese Conquered US Team, but Americans Showed Real Promise for Olympics', New York Times, 29 Dec. 1935. 116. Guttmann and Thompson, Japanese Sports, 122–5; Suzuki, 'Japan's Record in Olympiad History of Modern Sports in Japan'. On the prowess of American women before the 1936 Olympics, see Dyreson, 'Icons of Liberty or Objects of Desire?' 117. 'Japanese Mermen Coming Here', New York Times, 17 Aug. 1937; 'Kiefer Triumphs in Race at Tokyo; Chicago Star Takes 100-Meter Back-Stroke Event – Miss Rawls Also Scores', New York Times, 17 Aug. 1937; Kiefer Clips Mark Again; Betters 50-Meter Swim Record for Third Time in Japan', New York Times, 16 Aug. 1937; 'Kiefer Breaks Record In Swim Meet at Tokyo', New York Times, 15 Aug. 1937. 118. 'Tokyo Prepares for the XIIth Olympiad'; 'Sports Grounds for XIIth Olympic Games'. 119. Tabata, 'Swimming. 120. Roche, Mega-Events and Modernity. 121. These terms are derived from Geertz, Local Knowledge, 47.
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