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From landscape of gods to landscape of man: Imperial altars in Beijing

2011; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 31; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/14601176.2011.587279

1943-2186

Lei Gao, Jan Woudstra,

Hong Kong and Taiwan Politics

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1. Wuyi Xi (习五一), 'Jindai Beijing simiao de leixing jiegou jiexi' (近代北京寺庙的类型结构解析, 'The Analysis of the Types and Structures of Beijing's Temples in the Modern Times'), Shijie zongjiao yanjiu (世界宗教研究, Studies in World Religions), No. 1 (2006), pp. 34–44 (35). 2. The accurate number of surviving temples and altars, as well as temples and altars in use, has not been seen in published sources. The figures here are from a local archaeologist's personal study. Source from: http://group.hudong.com/shoucang/doc/mZH10agFZZWYGfVdg.html [accessed 6 January 2011]. 3. The only altar which has not been made into parks is the Altar of the God of Silkworm, the smallest imperial altar among the seven. However, the location of this altar was in Western Gardens, an imperial park just next to the Forbidden City. This altar was constructed in the Qing Dynasty for the empress and her female attendants to pray for and sacrifice to the god of silkworms. 4. The printed Chinese text for the definition of tán (壇; altar) was: 壇祭場也从土亶聲 (An altar is a sacrificing ground, made from earth and pronounced as tán). Shen Xu (许慎, c. ad 58–147) (compiler), Xuan Xu (徐铉, 916–991) (editor), Shuowen Jiezi (fu jianzi) (说文解字, Exegesis of characters, with word checklist) (Beijing: Cathay Publishing, 1963), p. 289. The form of the traditional character 壇shows it was made by earth (土, means earth or soil, as the left part of the character), although later bricks, enamelled tiles or bricks and stones were also used in altar making. 5. Zuochen Liu (刘祚臣),Beijing de tanmiao wenhua, (北京的坛庙文化, The Altar and Temple Culture in Beijing) (Beijing: Beijing Press, 2000), pp. 3–5. 6. Archaeological findings in Jiahu, Henan Province, China show that, between 7000 bc and 5700 bc, the Neolithic human beings might have already developed their ritualistic practices. See Juzhong Zhang, Garman Harbottle, Changsui Wang, Zhaochen Kong, 'Oldest playable musical instruments found at Jiahu early Neolithic site in China', Nature, 401 (1999) 366–368 (p. 368); Helen R. Pilcher, 'Earliest handwriting found? Chinese relics hint at Neolithic rituals', Nature (published online 30 April 2003): http://www.nature.com/news/2003/030428/full/news030428-7.html [accessed 27 February 2008]. 7. The Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 27, The Li Ki (Liji), Books I–X, trans. by James Legge, ed. by F. Max Muller (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1885), p. 13. 8. The Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 28, The Li Ki (Liji), Books I–X, trans. by James Legge, ed. by F. Max Muller (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1885), p. 425. 9. In Liji, it says 'the Son of Heaven sacrifices (or presents oblations) to Heaven and Earth; to the (spirits presiding over the) four quarters; to (the spirits of) the hills and rivers; and offers the five sacrifices of the house — all in the course of the year', see The Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 28, The Li Ki (Liji), Books XI–XLVI, trans. by James Legge, ed. by F. Max Muller (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1885), pp. 207–209; 'Liji jishuo', (礼记集说, A collection on the remarks of the Book of Rites), interpreted by Hao Chen (陈澔), in Sishu wujing (Zhongce) (四书五经(中册), Four books and five classics, middle volume) (Beijing: Zhonguo Shudian, 1985), pp. 23–24. 10. In Liji, Confucius said, 'It was by those rules that the ancient kings sought to represent the ways of Heaven, and to regulate the feelings of men. Therefore he who neglects or violates them may be (spoken of) as dead, and he who observes them, as alive… . Therefore those rules are rooted in heaven, have their correspondences in earth, and are applicable to spiritual beings. They extend to funeral rites, sacrifices, archery, chariot-driving, capping, marriage, audiences, and friendly missions. Thus the sages made known these rules, and it became possible for the kingdom, with its states and clans, to reach its correct condition'. The Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 28, The Li Ki (Liji), Books I–X, trans. by James Legge, ed. by F. Max Muller (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1885), p. 367. 11. Tiantan zhi (天坛志, Chronicle of the Altar of Heaven), ed. by Editorial Board of Beijing Chronicles (北京市地方志编撰委员会) (Beijing: Beijing Press, 2006), p. 2. 12. Tiantan zhi (天坛志, Chronicle of the Altar of Heaven), pp. 2–3. 13. The following section on the sacrifice rituals at the Altar of the God of Agriculture is based on the sources from Beijing xiannongtan shiliao xuanbian (北京先农坛史料选编, Selected archives on the Altar of the God of Agriculture in Beijing), ed. by Editorial Committee of Selected archives on the Altar of the God of Agriculture in Beijing (Beijing: Xueyuan Chubanshe, 2007), pp. 326–327, 352–354. 14. Yongbin Tang (汤用彬) and others, Jiudu wenwu lüe (旧都文物略, Sketch of cultural property in old Capital) (Beijing: Beijing Guji Chubanshe, 2000), p. 41. This book was first published in 1935. 15. Jindai zhongguo shehui wenhua bianqianlu (近代中国社会文化变迁录, Records of the Changing Social Culture of Modern China), Vol. 1, ed. by Zhiqin Liu (刘志琴) (Hangzhou: Zhejiang People's Press, 1998), p. 579; Vol. 2, p. 531. 16. Le Yang (杨乐), Jianning Zhu (朱建宁), Rong Xiong (熊融), 'Qianxi zhongguo jindai zujie huayuan' (浅析中国近代租借花园, An Analysis of the Concession Gardens in Modern China), Journal of Beijing Forestry University (Social Science), Vol. 2, No. 1 (2003), 17–21. 17. For details of the opening of imperial gardens as public parks, see Mingzheng Shi, 'From imperial gardens to public parks: the transformation of urban space in early twentieth-century Beijing', Modern China, Vol. 24, No. 3 (1998), 219–254. 18. For Xinhai Revolution, see Article 'Chinese revolution (1911–1912)', in Encyclopaedia Britannica (2008). 19. The altar of Heaven, Altar of Earth, Altar of the Sun, Altar of the Moon, and the Altar of the God of Agriculture were immediately handed over to the Republican Government. But because the Altar of Soil and Grain is situated at the front entrance of the Forbidden City, which was kept as the former emperor's residence until 1924, for safety reasons (maybe also symbolic meanings), the imperial family had hoped to keep the Altar of Soil and Grain as their private property. Several negotiations were made between the Republican Ministry of Interior and the imperial family before the final shift of the property rights. 20. Text translated from Chinese by authors. Source from 'Shen neiwubu zongyishihui chengqing jiang xiannongtan gaijian gongyuan qingshi zunyou' (申内务部据总议事会呈请将先农坛改建公园请示遵由, To the Ministry of Interior, Reasons of adapting the Altar of the God of Agriculture into a Public Park), 29 May 1912, No. 18 (Nanjing: Number Two Historical Archives of China (中国第二历史档案馆)). 21. 'Jinchengzhe zhun nonglinbu qingbogei tiantan ditan xiannongtan sanchu sizhou kongdi dangji chengming' (谨呈者准农林部 请拨给天坛地坛先农坛三处四周空地当即呈明, To whom submit the application: granted Department of Agriculture and Forestry being given the empty lands surrounded the Altar of Heaven, Altar of Earth and Altar of Agriculture), 4 October 1912, No. 21 (Nanjing: Number Two Historical Archives of China (中国第二历史档案馆)). 22. Texts translated from Chinese by authors. Source from Nonglinbu (农林部, Department of Agriculture and Forestry), 14 October 1912, No. 28 (Nanjing: Number Two Historical Archives of China (中国第二历史档案馆)). 23. Mingzheng Shi, 'From imperial gardens to public parks: the transformation of urban space in early twentieth-century Beijing', Modern China, Vol. 24, No. 3 (1998), 219–254. 24. Beijing xiannongtan shiliao xuanbian (北京先农坛史料选编, Selected Archives on the Altar of Agriculture in Beijing), pp. 345–346. 25. Tiantan zhi (天坛志, Chronicle of the Altar of Heaven), p. 74. 26. Tiantan zhi (天坛志, Chronicle of the Altar of Heaven), p. 20. 27. Tiantan zhi (天坛志, Chronicle of the Altar of Heaven), p. 246. 28. Shengpei Li (李升培), Tiantan guji jilue (天坛古迹纪略, A brief record of historical sites of the Altar of Heaven) (Beijing: 1928), pp. 1–2. 29. Texts translated from Chinese by authors. Source from Shengpei Li (李升培), Tiantan guji jilue (天坛古迹纪略, A brief record of historical sites of the Altar of Heaven) (Beijing: 1928), pp. 1–2. Li was the last City Mayor of Beijing in the Republican era. 30. About the account of the Republican Government's emphasis on city infrastructure development (transportation, street cleaning … ) rather than a public park in the 1910s, see Mingzheng Shi, 'From imperial gardens to public parks: the transformation of urban space in early twentieth-century Beijing', Modern China, Vol. 24, No. 3 (1998), 219–254 (p. 234). 31. Zhongshan gongyuan zhi (中山公园志, Chronicles of the Zhongshan Park), ed. by Zhongshan Park Administration (Beijing: China Forestry Press, 2002), p. 78. 32. From 1917, the Central Park opened daily 6 a.m. to 10 p.m. 33. Gate beasts are a common decoration for the entrance of Chinese buildings and gardens. The lions and the Qilin (an imaginary animal which was believed a son of Dragon) most commonly serve this purpose. 34. Zhongshan gongyuan zhi (中山公园志, Chronicles of the Zhongshan Park), pp. 78–79. 35. Remaking the Chinese city: modernity and national identity, 1900–1950, ed. by Joseph W. Esherick (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, c. 2000), p. 128. 36. Remaking the Chinese city: modernity and national identity, 1900–1950, p. 128. Original words by Shi Tuo in 1935. 37. Qiqian Zhu (朱启钤), 'Zhongyang gongyuan ji' (中央公园记, Records of Central Park) (1925), in Zhongshan gongyuan zhi (中山公园志, Chronicles of the Zhongshan Park), p. 266. 38. Beijing xiannongtan shiliao xuanbian (北京先农坛史料选编, Selected Archives on the Altar of Agriculture in Beijing), pp. 249–251, 345–346. 39. Texts translated from Chinese by authors. Source from 'Preface', Ji Liu (刘骥), Jingzhao gongyuan jishi (京兆公园纪实, Authentic records of the Capital City Park) (Beijing: [unknown publisher], 1925). 40. 'Preface', Ji Liu (刘骥), Jingzhao gongyuan jishi (京兆公园纪实, Authentic records of the Capital City Park) (Beijing: [unknown publisher], 1925). 41. During the early Republic, Western culture and ideology were promoted. As a contrast, traditional Chinese culture and custom turned to a negative symbol. Before 1928, the concept of 'nation' was not generally recognized by the Chinese. See 'Although the Chinese were a "single pure race", China was only a "sheet of loose sand", and unless she became a nation she was doomed. Therefore the main emphasis of the new China must be on "nationalism"'. Victor Purcell, The rise of modern China (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul for the Historical Association, 1962), p. 19. Similar ideas also appeared in Tingfu Jiang (蒋廷黻, 1896–1965), Zhongguo jindaishi dagang (中国近代史大纲, Framework of Modern History of China) (Nanjing: Jiangsu Education Press, 2006), p. 2, in which he said, 'Contemporary China has little sense of nation … '. Therefore, building the sense of nation is helpful to centralize the political power, as well as enhance national confidence. 42. A good study of Beiping in 1928–1936 and its shift of identity is by Madeleine Yue Dong, 'Defining Beiping: Urban Reconstruction and National Identity, 1928–1936', in Remaking the Chinese City: Modernity and National Identity, 1900–1950, edited by Joseph W. Esherick (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2000), pp. 121–138, which has been used in writing this paragraph. 43. Yongbin Tang (汤用彬) and others, Jiudu wenwu lüe (旧都文物略, Sketch of the cultural property in old Capital). (Beijing: Beijing Guji Chubanshe, 2000). 44. Ignatius T. P. Pao (包遵彭), Guwu baocunfa (古物保存法, Chinese Protective Legislation on Cultural Properties) (Taipei: Zhonghua congshu bianshen weiyuanhui (中华丛书编审委员会), 1966), p. 3. 45. Zhonghua minguo xianxing fagui daquan (中华民国现行法规大全, Complete volumes of validated laws and regulations of the Republican China), ed. by Commercial Press (Wuhan: Hubei Library, 2005), p. 366. 46. Zhonghua minguo xianxing fagui daquan (中华民国现行法规大全, Complete volumes of validated laws and regulations of the Republican China), p. 367. 47. Jingwei Wang (汪精卫) and Jieshi Jiang (蒋介石), 'Announcement', 30 November 1934, in Zhongyang guwu baoguan weiyuanhui yishilu (中央古物保管委员会议事录, Meeting Records of the Central Committee of Protection of Ancient Objects), Vol. 1 (1935), p. 39. 48. 'Zhongguo guomindang diwuci quanguo daibiao dahui neizhengbu gongzuo baogao' (中国国民党第五次全国代表大会内政部工作报告, Working reports of Ministry of Interior on the 5th National Congress of CNP), Geming wenxian (革命文献, Material on Chinese Revolutionary History), Vol. 71 (Taipei: Zhongguo Guomindang Zhongyang Weiyuanhui (中国国民党中央委员会, 1977), p. 304. 49. Kristofer Schipper (施舟人), 'Daojiao zai jindai zhongguo de bianqian' (道教在近代中国的变迁, Changes of Taoism in Modern China), from Library of the Western Belvedere西观藏书楼: http://www.xiguan.net/Schipper/010.htm [accessed 3 February, 2008]. 50. Beijing xiannongtan shiliao xuanbian (北京先农坛史料选编, Selected Archives on the Altar of Agriculture in Beijing), p. 348. 51. Xianzhou Du (杜仙洲) and Zequan Tong (佟泽泉), 'Zhongguo wenwu yanjiusuo de lishi ji guancang tushu ziliao' (中国文物研究所的历史及馆藏图书资料, History and collections of China Cultural Heritage Research Institute), Zhongguo wenwu yanjiusuo qishinian 1935–2005 (中国文物研究所七十年, Seventy years of China Cultural Heritage Research Institute 1935–2005), ed. by China Cultural Heritage Research Institute (中国文物研究所) (Beijing: Cultural Heritage Press, 2005), pp. 304–309 (304). 52. 'Zhongguo guomindang diwuci quanguo daibiao dahui neizhengbu gongzuo baogao' (中国国民党第五次全国代表大会内政部工作报告, Working Reports of Ministry of Interior on the 5th National Congress of CNP), Geming wenxian (革命文献, Material on Chinese Revolutionary History), Vol. 59 (Taibei: Zhongguo Guomindang Zhongyang Weiyuanhui (中国国民党中央委员会), 1977), p. 296. 53. Yong Cui (崔勇), 'Record on Renovation of Heaven Temple in 1935', Archicreation, No. 4 (2006), pp. 168–171. 54. 'Jiudu wenwu zhengli weiyuanhui zhi gongzuo' (旧都文物整理委员会之工作, The work of Organizational Committee to Cultural Properties in the Former Capital) (Nanjing, 1937), Geming wenxian (革命文献, Material on Chinese Revolutionary History), Vol. 59 (TaiPei: Zhongguo Guomindang Zhongyang Weiyuanhui (中国国民党中央委员会), 1972), pp. 184–185. 55. Yongbin Tang (汤用彬) and others, Jiudu wenwu lüe (旧都文物略, Sketch of Cultural Property in Old Capital), p. 42. 56. Yongbin Tang (汤用彬) and others, Jiudu wenwu lüe (旧都文物略, Sketch of Cultural Property in Old Capital), p. 40. 57. Xinghua Zhao (赵兴华), Beijing yuanlin shihua (北京园林史话, History of Beijing Gardens) (Beijing: China Forestry Press, 2000), p. 253. 58. Madeleine Yue Dong, 'Defining Beiping: Urban Reconstruction and National Identity, 1928–1936', in Remaking the Chinese City: Modernity and National Identity, 1900–1950, ed. by Joseph W. Esherick (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2000), pp. 121–138 (p. 132). 59. Xinghua Zhao (赵兴华), Beijing yuanlin shihua (北京园林史话, History of Beijing Gardens) (Beijing: China Forestry Press, 2000), p. 253. 60. But in other sources, it is said that removing trees for airstrips was done by the CNP in 1948. see Chunmao Wang (王春茂), 'Tiantan haojie' (天坛浩劫, The Catastrophe of the Altar of Heaven), Jinghua yuanlin congkao (京华园林丛考, Exploration of Beijing Gardens), ed. by Historical Records Office of Beijing Municipal Bureau of Parks (Beijing: Beijing Kexue Jishu Chubanshe, 1996), p. 484. 61. Sicheng Liang (梁思成), Liang Sicheng quanji (梁思成全集, Complete Collection of Liang Sicheng), Vol. 4 (Beijing: China Architecture Press, 2001), pp. 225–293. 62. Ziqing Zhu (朱自清), 'Wenwu, jiushu, maobi' (文物 旧书 毛笔, Cultural objects, old books and writing brushes), L'Impartial (大公报), 31 March, 1948. 63. Sicheng Liang (梁思成), Liang Sicheng quanji (梁思成全集, Complete Collection of Liang Sicheng), Vol. 4 (Beijing: China Architecture Press, 2001), pp. 307–313. 64. See Mao Tse-tung, 'Report on an investigation of the peasant movement in Hunan', in Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung, I.44, quoted from The Cambridge History of China, Vol. 15. (Cambridge: CUP, 1991) p. 619. The four ropes, representing the bonds of four kinds of authority, are: the state system (political authority), the clan system (clan authority), the supernatural system (religious authority), and for women, the men (the authority of the husband). these four authorities — political, clan, religious, and masculine — are seen as the embodiment of the whole feudal-patriarchal system and ideology by Mao Zedong. 65. Joseph A. Adler, Chinese Religions (London: Routledge, 2002), p. 110. 66. Texts translated from Chinese by authors. Source from 'Preface', Liang Jin (金梁), Tiantan zhilüe (天坛志略, A Brief Record of the Altar of Heaven) (mimeograph at the National Library of China, Beijing, 1953). 67. Liang Jin (金梁), Tiantan zhilüe (天坛志略, A Brief Record of the Altar of Heaven), p. 73. 68. A series of scientific assessments on the audio phenomena at the Altar of Heaven have been carried out by Chinese professionals since 1953. But no evidence shows whether such phenomena are designed or merely accidental. Details see 'Shengxue xianxiang yanjiu' (声学现象研究, Studies on Audio Phenomena), in Tiantan zhi (天坛志, Records of the Altar of Heaven), ed. by Editorial Board of Beijing Chronicles (北京市地方志编撰委员会) (Beijing: Beijing Press, 2006), pp. 270–273. 69. Beijing Municipal Administration of Cultural Heritage, Beijingshi diyipi wenwu baohu danwei mingdan (北京市第一批文物保护单位名单, List of the first batch of Protected Cultural Heritage of National Importance in Beijing): http://www.bjww.gov.cn/wbdw/view_sb.asp?pici=北京市第一批文物保护单位名单&page=2# [accessed 25 November 2007]. 70. Fenxuan Xue (薛凤旋), Beijing: you chuantong guodu dao shehuizhuyi shoudu (北京:由传统国都到社会主义首都, Beijing: from a traditional capital to a socialist capital) (Hongkong: Hongkong University Press, 1996), p. 81. 71. The construction of Beijing since the early 1950s was learned from the Soviet model, in which the city was planned as various functional units. Each unit required their green spaces such as a public park. See Fenxuan Xue (薛凤旋), Beijing: you chuantong guodu dao shehuizhuyi shoudu (北京:由传统国都到社会主义首都, Beijing: from a traditional capital to a socialist capital), pp. 79–87. 72. Min Li (李敏). Zhongguo xiandai gongyuan: fazhan yu pingjia (中国现代公园:发展与评价, Modern parks of China: development and evaluation) (Beijing: Beijing kexue jishu chubanshe, 1987), p. 17. 73. Beijing xiannongtan shiliao xuanbian (北京先农坛史料选编, Selected Archives on the Altar of Agriculture in Beijing), p. 350. 74. Beijing Municipal Bureau of Parks (北京市园林局), Dangdai Beijing yuanlin fazhanshi (当代北京园林发展史, A Contemporary History of the Development of Gardens and Landscapes in Beijing) (October, 1987), p. 129. 75. Beijing Municipal Bureau of Parks (北京市园林局), Dangdai Beijing yuanlin fazhanshi (当代北京园林发展史, A Contemporary History of the Development of Gardens and Landscapes in Beijing), p. 129. 76. Beijing Municipal Bureau of Parks (北京市园林局), Dangdai Beijing yuanlin fazhanshi (当代北京园林发展史, A Contemporary History of the Development of Gardens and Landscapes in Beijing), p. 132. 77. Beijing Municipal Bureau of Parks (北京市园林局), Dangdai Beijing yuanlin fazhanshi (当代北京园林发展史, A Contemporary History of the Development of Gardens and Landscapes in Beijing), p. 130. 78. Beijing Municipal Bureau of Parks (北京市园林局), Dangdai Beijing yuanlin fazhanshi (当代北京园林发展史, A Contemporary History of the Development of Gardens and Landscapes in Beijing), p. 128. 79. Beijing Municipal Bureau of Parks (北京市园林局), Dangdai Beijing yuanlin fazhanshi (当代北京园林发展史, A Contemporary History of the Development of Gardens and Landscapes in Beijing), p. 132. 80. Beijing Municipal Bureau of Parks (北京市园林局), Dangdai Beijing yuanlin fazhanshi (当代北京园林发展史, A Contemporary History of the Development of Gardens and Landscapes in Beijing), p. 132. 81. Beijing Municipal Bureau of Parks (北京市园林局), Dangdai Beijing yuanlin fazhanshi (当代北京园林发展史, A Contemporary History of the Development of Gardens and Landscapes in Beijing), p. 107. 82. Beijing Municipal Bureau of Parks (北京市园林局), Dangdai Beijing yuanlin fazhanshi (当代北京园林发展史, A Contemporary History of the Development of Gardens and Landscapes in Beijing), p. 107. 83. Tiantan zhi (天坛志, The Altar of Heaven Records), p. 9. 84. Beijing Municipal Bureau of Parks (北京市园林局), Dangdai Beijing yuanlin fazhanshi (当代北京园林发展史, A Contemporary History of the Development of Gardens and Landscapes in Beijing), p. 20. 85. Zhongshan gongyuan zhi (中山公园志, Chronicles of the Zhongshan Park), p. 107. 86. 'Economic Policies' in Article 'China', Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2008. 87. Beijing Municipal Bureau of Parks (北京市园林局), Dangdai Beijing yuanlin fazhanshi (当代北京园林发展史, A Contemporary History of the Development of Gardens and Landscapes in Beijing), p. 131. 88. Galen Cranz, 'The Useful and the Beautiful: Urban Parks in China', Landscape 23/2 (1979), 3–10 (p. 4). 89. Beijing Municipal Bureau of Parks (北京市园林局), Dangdai Beijing yuanlin fazhanshi (当代北京园林发展史, A Contemporary History of the Development of Gardens and Landscapes in Beijing), p. 128. 90. Beijing Municipal Bureau of Parks (北京市园林局), Dangdai Beijing yuanlin fazhanshi (当代北京园林发展史, A Contemporary History of the Development of Gardens and Landscapes in Beijing), p. 129. 91. Beijing Municipal Bureau of Parks (北京市园林局), Dangdai Beijing yuanlin fazhanshi (当代北京园林发展史, A Contemporary History of the Development of Gardens and Landscapes in Beijing), p. 131. 92. For example, in 1987, the sacrifice at imperial altars were still conceived as 'a kind of superstitious activity made by the Feudal monarchs praying for peace protected by the gods', see Beijing Municipal Bureau of Parks (北京市园林局), Dangdai Beijing yuanlin fazhanshi (当代北京园林发展史, A Contemporary History of the Development of Gardens and Landscapes in Beijing), pp. 131–132. 93. Tiantan zhi (天坛志, Record of the Altar of Heaven), p. 9. 94. 'Beijingshi shiyiwu guihua gangyao baogao fabu' (北京市'十一五'规划纲要报告发布, The framework of the 11th Five-Year plan of Beijing), Xinhua News Net: http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2006-01/25/content_4097901.htm [accessed 6 February 2010].