A Northern Refuge of the Monstrous Races: Asia on Waldseemüller's 1516 Carta Marina
2010; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 62; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/03085691003747159
ISSN1479-7801
Autores Tópico(s)Historical Geography and Cartography
ResumoAbstract Notes Notes and References 1. The unique surviving copy of the Carta marina was discovered in the Schöner Sammelband codex that also contained the only known exemplar of Waldseemüller's 1507 world map. The codex was assembled by Johann Schöner before 1547 and was recently donated to the Library of Congress by Jay I. Kislak. See John Hessler, ‘The Schöner Sammelband’, in The Jay I. Kislak Collection at the Library of Congress: A Catalog of the Gift of the Jay I. Kislak Foundation to the Library of Congress, ed. Arthur Dunkelman (Washington, DC, Library of Congress, 2007), 99–108. For a facsimile, see Die älteste Karte mit dem Namen Amerika aus dem Jahre 1507 und die Carta marina aus dem Jahre 1516 des M. Waldseemüller (Ilacomilus), ed. Joseph Fischer and Franz Ritter von Wieser (Innsbruck, Wagner'schen Universitäts-Buchhandlung, 1903; Amsterdam, Theatrum orbis terrarum, 1968). All toponyms, but not texts, on the Carta marina have been transcribed by Meret Petrzilka, Die Karten des Laurent Fries von 1530 und 1531 und ihre Vorlage, die ‘Carta Marina’ aus dem Jahre 1516 von Martin Waldseemüller (Zurich, Neuen Zürcher Zeitung, 1970), 42–110. 2. On the horror vacui as a motivation for adding illustrations to medieval maps, see Anna-Dorothee von den Brincken, ‘Weltbild der lateinischen Universalhistoriker und -kartographen’, in Popoli e paesi nella cultura altomedievale: 23–29 aprile 1981 (Spoleto, Presso la Sede del Centro, 1983), 377–408, esp. 403; idem, Kartographische Quellen, Welt-, See-, und Regionalkarten (Turnhout, Brepols, 1988), 50 and 96–97; idem, ‘Fines Terrae’: Die Enden der Erde und der vierte Kontinent auf mittelalterlichen Weltkarten (Hannover, Hahnsche Buchhandlung, 1992), 93. 3. Herodotus, Histories 3.116. For discussion see James Romm, ‘Dragons and gold at the ends of the earth: a folktale motif developed by Herodotus’, Marvels & Tales 1:1 (1987): 45–54; and Heinz-Günther Nesselrath, ‘Herodot und die Grenzen der Erde’, Museum Helveticum 52 (1995): 20–44. The quotation from Pliny is Naturalis historia 7.2.21 (Praecipue India Aethiopumque tractus miraculis scatent). See Rudolf Wittkower, ‘Marvels of the East: a study in the history of monsters’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 5 (1942): 159–97, reprinted in his Allegory and Migration of Symbols (Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press, 1977), 45–74. Pliny 8.17.42 contains the famous line vulgare Graeciae dictum semper aliquid novi Africam adferre, ‘it is commonly said among the Greeks that “Africa always offers something new”’, on which see A. V. van Stekelenburg, ‘Ex Africa semper aliquid novi—a proverb's pedigree’, Akroteriòn 33:4 (1988): 114–20. On the history of the monstrous races in India before Pliny, see James Romm, ‘Belief and other worlds: Ktesias and the founding of the “Indian wonders”’, in Mindscapes: The Geography of Imagined Worlds, ed. George E. Slusser and Eric S. Rabkin (Carbondale, Southern Illinois University Press, 1989), 121–35. 4. See John Block Friedman, The Monstrous Races in Medieval Art and Thought (Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1981; reprinted with expanded bibliography, Syracuse, Syracuse University Press, 2000). 5. The Psalter mappamundi is London, British Library, Add. MS 28681, fol. 9r; the map is discussed, and the monstrous races identified, in Konrad Miller, Mappaemundi: Die ältesten Welkarten (Stuttgart, J. Roth, 1895–1898), 3:37–43. The Duchy of Cornwall mappamundi fragment is London, Duchy of Cornwall Office, Maps and Plans 1; for discussion, see Graham Haslam, ‘The Duchy of Cornwall map fragment’, in Géographie du monde au Moyen Age et à la Renaissance, ed. Monique Pelletier (Paris, Editions du C.T.H.S., 1989), 33–44. The Hereford mappamundi is on display at Hereford Cathedral; a full treatment of the map is found in Scott D. Westrem, The Hereford Map: A Transcription and Translation of the Legends with Commentary (Turnhout, Brepols, 2001). The Ranulf Higden map is London, British Library, Royal MS 14.C.ix, fols. 1v–2r. The Ebstorf mappamundi was destroyed during the Second World War but survives in facsimile; a full reproduction and analysis is in Hartmut Kugler, Die Ebstorfer Weltkarte (Berlin, Akademie Verlag, 2007); see also the Ebskart Projekt, University of Lüneberg, Germany [http://Kultureinformatik.uni-lueneberg.de/projekte/ebskart/content/start.html]. Good recent discussions of these maps may be found in Peter Barber, ‘Medieval maps of the world’, in The Hereford World Map: Medieval World Maps and Their Context, ed. P. D. A. Harvey (London, The British Library, 2006), 1–44, esp. 15–35. All are also reproduced in Peter Barber (ed.), The Map Book (London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2005). 6. See The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian: Concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East, transl. and ed. Henry Yule (London, J. Murray, 1903), 2: 309–312, Bk 3, chap. 13. Polo's cynocephali are illustrated in Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, MS fr. 2810, fol. 76v (early 15th century). 7. See The Travels of Sir John Mandeville; the Version of the Cotton Manuscript in Modern Spelling (London, Macmillan, 1923), 130. Mandeville's cynocephali are illustrated, for example, in London, British Library, MS Harley 3954, fols. 40v–41r (c.1430). 8. On the transfer of the classical monstrous races to the New World, see Peter Mason, ‘Classical ethnography and its influence on the European perception of the peoples of the new world’, in The Classical Tradition and the Americas, vol. 1, pt. l, European Images of the Americas and the Classical Tradition, ed. Wolfgang Haase and Meyer Reinhold (Berlin and New York, Walter de Gruyter, 1994), 135–72; and Marion Steinicke, ‘Apokalyptische Heerscharen und Gottesknechte: Wundervölker des Ostens in abendländischer Tradition vom Untergang der Antike bis zur Entdeckung Amerikas’ (doctoral dissertation, Freie Universität Berlin, Fachbereich Geschichts- und Kulturwissenschaften, 2002). There are also New World cynocephali (one of which is perhaps intended for a cannibal) on the Piri Re'is map of 1513, reproduced in Kenneth Nebenzahl, Atlas of Columbus and the Great Discoveries (Chicago, Rand McNally, 1990), 63; for translations of the legends, see Paul Kahle, ‘A lost map of Columbus’, Geographical Review 23 (1933): 621–38, esp. legends XV (624–26) and XIII (638). 9. On the transfer of the monstrous races to the north, see Eva Matthews Sanford, ‘Vbi lassvs deficit orbis’, Philological Quarterly 13 (1934): 357–69, esp. 367. Specifically on the cynocephali in the north, see O. F. Fritzsche, ‘Der Brief des Ratramnus über die Hundsköpfe’, Zeitschrift für wissenchaftlische Theologie 24 (1881): 57–67; Ann E. Matter, ‘The soul of the dog-man: Ratramnus of Corbie between theology and philosophy’, Rivista di storia della filosofia 61:1 (2006): 43–53; and Leonid Chekin, Northern Eurasia in Medieval Cartography: Inventory, Texts, Translation, and Commentary (Turnhout, Brepols, 2006), 221. 10. On the Essedones, see E. M. Murphy and J. P. Mallory, ‘Herodotus and the cannibals’, Antiquity 74 (2000): 388–94. Gregory G. Guzman, ‘Reports of Mongol cannibalism in the thirteenth-century Latin sources: oriental fact or western fiction?’ in Discovering New Worlds: Essays on Medieval Exploration and Imagination, ed. Scott Westrem (New York, Garland, 1991), 31–68, analyses the image of the Essedones on the Hereford map. For the relevant texts on the Hereford map, see Westrem, The Hereford Map (note 5), 70–71, no. 142, and 100–1, no. 212. 11. See Pseudo-Aethicus Ister, Cosmographiam Aethici Istrici, ed. Henricus Wuttke (Leipzig, Dyk, 1853), 15–16; and Friedman, The Monstrous Races (note 4), 84–85. For the text on the Hereford mappamundi, see Westrem, The Hereford Map (note 5), 186–87, no. 442. 12. On Gog and Magog in general, see Andrew Runni Anderson, Alexander's Gate, Gog and Magog, and the Inclosed Nations (Cambridge, Mass., The Medieval Academy of America, 1932). For their representation on maps, see Andrew Gow, ‘Gog and Magog on mappaemundi and early printed world maps: orientalizing ethnography in the Apocalyptic tradition’, Journal of Early Modern History 2:1 (1998): 61–88; and Scott D. Westrem, ‘Against Gog and Magog’, in Text and Territory: Geographical Imagination in the European Middle Ages, ed. Sylvia Tomasch and Sealy Gilles (Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), 54–75. 13. On the identification of the figure of the Antichrist, see Sandra Sáenz-López Pérez, ‘La representación de Gog y Magog y la imagen del Anticristo en las cartas náuticas bajomedievales’, Archivo Español de Arte 78 (2005): 263–76. 14. Madrid, Museo Naval, MN 257. The chart is reproduced in Nebenzahl's Atlas of Columbus (see note 8), 32–33; in facsimile in El mapa de Juan de la Cosa (Madrid, Testimonio Compañía Editorial, 1992), where it is accompanied by a study by José Luis Comellas; and in Carta de Juan de la Cosa: año de 1500 (Madrid, Editorial Egeria, 1992). On the representation of Gog and Magog on this chart, see Sandra Sáenz-López Pérez, ‘La Carta de Juan de la Cosa (1500), colofón de la cartografía medieval’, in Piezas del Mes, Museo Naval de Madrid, 2003/2005, ed. Ana Ros Togores (Madrid, Museo Naval de Madrid, 2006), 10–31, esp. 26–27. 15. Waldseemüller's original images attracted imitators. Copies—some of lesser quality than others—of Waldseemüller's depictions of these monstrous races appear on Lorenz Fries's Carta marina, published in 1525, 1530, and 1531, which is based on Waldseemüller's map. See Hildegard Binder Johnson, Carta marina: World Geography in Strassburg, 1525 (Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1963). Only two copies of Fries's Carta marina survive, one of the 1530 edition in the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek in Munich, and one of the 1531 edition in the Museum zu Allerheiligen in Schaffhausen, on which see Henry J. Bruman, ‘The Schaffhausen Carta Marina of 1531’, Imago Mundi 41 (1989): 124–32. A facsimile of the 1530 copy was published in Munich by the bookseller Ludwig Rosenthal in about 1926. 16. The text just north of the border reads: Quod extra ambitur hac linea et mari clauditur hoc maximi imperateris Gog Chaam ditioni subiatur, that is, ‘The area that is outside of this line and enclosed by the sea is under the dominion of the great emperor Gog Khan’. 17. For discussion of this block of text on the Carta marina, see Gaetano Ferro, Luisa Faldini and Marica Milanesi, Columbian Iconography, transl. Luciano F. Farina and Carla Onorato Wysokinski (Rome, Istituto poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, Libreria dello Stato, 1996), 494–97. 18. Plano Carpini wrote of his travels in a work variously titled Ystoria Mongalorum or Liber Tartarorum. The standard edition of d'Ailly's work is Pierre d'Ailly, Ymago mundi de Pierre d'Ailly; texte latin et traduction française des quatre traités cosmographiques de d'Ailly, ed. Edmond Buron (Paris, Maisonneuve frères, 1930). 19. See M. A. P. d'Avezac, ed., ‘Johannis de Plano Carpini Antivariensis Archiepiscopi Historia Mongalorum quos nos Tartaros appellamus’, Recueil de Voyages et de Mémoires 4 (1839): 603–779. 20. The 1473 edition of Vincent of Beauvais's Speculum historiale was printed in Strassburg, probably by Adolf Rusch, in four volumes. In a later edition, Bibliotheca mvndi. Vincentii burgvndi … Specvlvm qvadrvplex, natvrale, doctrinale, morale, historiale (Dvaci: Baltazaris Belleri, 1624), which is readily available through its facsimile reprinting with the title Speculum quadruplex; sive, Speculum maius (Graz, Akademische Druck- u. Verlaganstalt, 1964–1966), the material in question appears in Book 31 of the Speculum historiale (which is vol. 4 of the set), rather than in Book 32. For discussion, see The Texts and Versions of John de Plano Carpini and William de Rubruquis, ed. C. Raymond Beazley (London, Hakluyt Society, 1903); and Gregory G. Guzman, ‘The encyclopedist Vincent of Beauvais and his Mongol extracts from John of Plano Carpini and Simon of Saint-Quentin’, Speculum 49:2 (1974): 287–307. 21. Jean de Vignay's French translation of Vincent de Beauvais was first published without indication of the publisher in 1479, and then in 1495–1496 in Paris by Antoine Vérard. 22. The one illustration is in a manuscript of Jean de Vignay's French translation, and depicts the battle between the cynocephali and the Mongols, which Waldseemüller does not illustrate (Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, MS fr. 52, fol. 343r). For general discussion, see Hye-Min Lee, ‘Les images de l'histoire. Du Speculum historiale au Miroir historial: culture historique et iconographie dans les manuscrits enluminés de Vincent de Beauvais’ (doctoral dissertation, L’École des Hautes Études de Sciences Sociales, Paris, 2006). 23. The monstrous races are described in section 1.10 –11 of Honorius's Imago Mundi (see the edition in Valerie I. J. Flint, ‘Honorius Augustodunensis: Imago mundi’, Archives d'Histoire Doctrinale et Littéraire du Moyen Age 49 (1982): 7–153), and in section 2.3 in Gervase of Tilbury's work (available in Otia imperialia: Recreation for an Emperor, ed. and transl. S. E. Banks and J. W. Binns (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 2002)). 24. The Parossites are described in Vincent of Beauvais, Speculum historiale, Book 32, ch. 15; see Beazley, The Texts and Versions (see note 20), 88, and for Plano Carpini's text, 60–61. Plano Carpini's text is also supplied in Giovanni di Pian di Carpine, Storia dei Mongoli, ed. Enrico Menestò and transl. Maria Cristiana Lungarotti (Spoleto, Centro italiano di studi sull'alto Medioevo, 1989), 272, 361, and 454–55. An English translation of the passage in Plano Carpini is given in Christopher Dawson, The Mongol Mission (London, Sheed and Ward, 1955), 30. This monstrous race seems to have originated with Strabo, Geography 15.1.57. 25. The Samoyedes are described in Vincent of Beauvais, Speculum historiale, Book 32, ch. 15; see Beazley, The Texts and Versions (note 20), 88, and for Plano Carpini's text, 61. Plano Carpini's text is also supplied in Menestò, Storia dei Mongoli (note 24), 272–73, 361, and 455. For an English translation of the passage in Plano Carpini, see Dawson, The Mongol Mission (note 24), 30. There may be an illustration of this race in a non-cartographic 15th-century manuscript of Le livre des merveilles du monde (New York, Pierpont Morgan Library, MS M. 461, fol. 41v); this folio is reproduced in Friedman, The Monstrous Races (see note 4), 159. But it seems highly unlikely that this manuscript illustration influenced Waldseemüller. 26. The race of men with cow's feet is described in Vincent of Beauvais, Speculum historiale, Book 32, ch. 15; see Beazley, The Texts and Versions (note 20), 88, and for Plano Carpini's text, 61. Plano Carpini's text is also supplied in Menestò, Storia dei Mongoli (see note 24), 272, 361, and 455–56. For an English translation of the passage in Plano Carpini, see Dawson, The Mongol Mission (note 24), 30–31. 27. On the hippopodes in the north, see Ptolemy, Geography 3.5, Pliny, Naturalis historia 4.94, and Isidore Etymologiae 11.3.25. The race is illustrated in Montecassino, Biblioteca del Monumento Nazionale di Montecassino, MS 132, fol. 166v, an 11th-century manuscript of Rabanus Maurus, which folio is reproduced in Friedman, The Monstrous Races (see note 4), 133. The whole manuscript is reproduced in facsimile in De rerum naturis: Cod. Casis 132–Archivio dell'Abbazia di Montecassino, ed. Guglielmo Cavallo (Turin, Priuli & Verlucca, 1994). The hippopodes are also depicted on Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Bodley 614, fol. 50r (an early 12th-century manuscript of the Marvels of the East); on the Hereford mappamundi, on an island in the northeastern ocean (on which see Miller, Mappaemundi (note 5), 4:27, and Westrem, The Hereford Map (note 5), 22–23, no. 37); and in Schedel's Liber chronicarum (Nuremberg, 1493), fol. 12r. 28. The kneeless race is described in Vincent of Beauvais, Speculum historiale, Book 32, ch. 8; see Beazley, The Texts and Versions (see note 20), 81, and for Plano Carpini's text, 54. Plano Carpini's text is also supplied in Menestò, Storia dei Mongoli (see note 24), 254–55, 352, and 431–32. For an English translation of the passage in Plano Carpini see Dawson, The Mongol Mission (note 24), 20. The race is also represented in the 1522 and 1525 Strassburg editions of Ptolemy in the northwest corner of the Tabula Moderna of Indiae Superioris; in Lorenz Fries's Carta marina of 1530 and 1531 (but here mistakenly depicted with knees); and in Pierre Desceliers's map of 1550 (London, British Library Add. MS 24065, reproduced in Nebenzahl, Atlas of Columbus (see note 8), 114–15), in northeastern Asia, just east of the text describing the Great Khan. 29. On the idea that elephants had no knees, see A. T. Hatto, ‘The Elephants in the Strassburg Alexander’, London Medieval Studies 1 (1937–1939): 399–429, reprinted in The Medieval Alexander Legend and Romance Epic: Essays in Honour of David J. A. Ross, ed. Peter Noble, Lucie Polak and Claire Isoz (Millwood, NY, Kraus International Publication, 1982), 85–105, esp. 93–96. Sir Thomas Browne, Pseudodoxia epidemica (London, Tho. Harper, 1646), 115–19, Bk. 3, ch. 1, also discussed the myth. St. Augustine, De civitate Dei 16.8, says that sciapods, who shade themselves with their giant single foot, have no joints in their legs. 30. Physiologus, the Very Ancient Book of Beasts, Plants, and Stones, transl. Francis J. Carmody (San Francisco, Book Club of California, 1953), ch. 42; Willene B. Clark, A Medieval Book of Beasts: The Second-Family Bestiary: Commentary, Art, Text and Translation (Woodbridge, Suffolk, Boydell, 2006), 128; and Ilya Dines, ‘A Critical Edition of the Bestiaries of the Third Family’ (doctoral dissertation, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2008), Part 3, ch. 33. 31. The text comes from d'Ailly, Ymago mundi (see note 18), vol. 1, ch. 16, ‘De mirabilibus Indie’, 266; other authors who mention cynocephali in India include Pliny 7.2.14–22 and Isidore 11.3.15. They appear near Paradise on the Ebstorf mappamundi, with a legend that is quite similar to that on Waldseemüller, but the text on the Ebstorf map probably derives from Gervase of Tilbury: see Kugler, Die Ebstorfer Weltkarte (note 5), 1: 52–53, no. 12, and 2: 99. 32. See Wittkower, ‘Marvels of the East’ (note 3), 175 and plate 43d. Other illustrations of two or more cynocephali together include that on the Hereford mappamundi, where the creatures are curiously labelled giants (see Westrem, The Hereford Map (note 5), 40–41, no. 80); a manuscript of the Libro del conosçimiento (Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Cod. hisp. 150, fol. 18v); an early 15th-century manuscript of the Secrets de l'histoire naturelle (Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, MS fr. 1378, fol. 11v); a manuscript of Mandeville's Travels (New York Public Library, Spencer MS 37, fol. 106v); two manuscripts of a Dutch translation of Thomas of Cantimpré (The Hague, KB 76 E 4, fol. 4r, and KB KA 16, fol. 41r); and the Piri Re'is map of 1513, illustrated in Nebenzahl, Atlas of Columbus (see note 8), 63. 33. The text comes from d'Ailly, Ymago mundi (see note 18), 1:266. For a discussion of the Carimaspians/Arimaspians, see David Malcolm Blamires, Herzog Ernst and the Otherworld Voyage: A Comparative Study (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1979), 99–112. 34. On the blemmyae, see Ivar Hallberg, L'Extrême Orient dans la littérature et la cartographie de l'Occident des XIIIe, XIVe, et XVe siècles; étude sur l'histoire de la géographie (Göteborg, W. Zachrissons boktryckeri a.-b., 1907), 78–79; and Asa Mittman, Maps and Monsters in Medieval England (New York, Routledge, 2006), 85–106. 35. On the distinction between blemmyae and epiphagi, see Friedman, The Monstrous Races (note 4), 15 and the image on 10. The difference between the blemmyae and the epiphagi is illustrated among the monstrous races in southern Africa on the Hereford mappamundi, see Westrem, The Hereford Map (note 5), 382–83, nos. 971 and 973. A blemmyae and an epiphagus are also illustrated among the monstrous races in southern Africa on the Psalter mappamundi (see note 5), and in an 11th-century manuscript of Rabanus Maurus (see note 27). 36. Blemmyae with well-defined faces are portrayed in, for example, a 13th-century bestiary (Oxford, Bodleian, MS Douce 88, fol. 69v), reproduced in Friedman, The Monstrous Races (see note 4), 20. 37. This race is often called the astomoi, or the ‘mouthless men’, and while Strabo 15.1.57 and Pliny 7.2.25 say that they do not have mouths, many other authors do not say that they lack mouths, only that they live on the odour of apples. They are represented on both the Ebstorf mappamundi (see Miller, Mappaemundi (note 5), 5: 49; and Kugler, Die Ebstorfer Weltkarte (note 5), 1: 48–49 and 2: 94); and on the Hereford mappamundi (see Miller, Mappaemundi (note 5), 4: 36; and Westrem, The Hereford Map (note 5), 48–49, no. 97). There is some discussion of the race in H. Hosten, ‘The mouthless Indians of Megasthenes’, Journal and Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, New Series 8 (1912): 291–301. 38. The apple-smellers are represented with their trees, for example, in Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, MS fr. 2810, fol. 219v, an illustrated manuscript of Mandeville; and in New York, Pierpont Morgan Library, MS 461, fol. 41v, 15th century, reproduced in Friedman, The Monstrous Races (see note 4), 159. 39. These cynocephali are described in Vincent of Beauvais, Speculum historiale, Book 32, chap. 11; see Beazley, The Texts and Versions (note 20), 83–84, and for Plano Carpini's text, 56. For an English translation of the passage in Plano Carpini, see Dawson, The Mongol Mission (note 24), 23. For other earlier descriptions of a race in the north whose men have dogs’ heads, but whose women have human heads, see Pseudo-Aethicus Ister, Cosmographiam Aethici Istrici (note 11), 15–16; Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum (Hannover, Impensis Bibliopolii Hahniani, 1876), 176; and Friar Jordanus, Mirabilia descripta = The Wonders of the East, transl. Henry Yule (London, Hakluyt Society, 1863), 44. For discussion, see David Gordon White, Myths of the Dog-Man (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1991), 131–33. 40. On the pygmies, see Pietro Janni, ‘I Pigmei dall'Antichità al Medioevo: le fortune di una favola’, in Geografia e geografi nel mondo antico: guida storica e critica, ed. Francesco Frontera (Rome, Editori Laterza, 1983), 135–71; this is a reprint of Chapter 1 of Janni's book Etnografia e mito: la storia dei pigmei (Rome, Edizioni dell'Ateneo & Bizzarri, 1978). 41. See Pierre d'Ailly, Ymago Mundi (note 18), 1:264. The story of the changed colour of pepper appears in the corresponding passages in Honorius Augustodunensis's Imago Mundi (1.10) and Gervase of Tilbury's Otia imperialia (2.3); Isidore's Etymologiae (17.8.8), and The Travels of Sir John Mandeville (see note 7), 113. Another image of a pepper harvest is in an illustrated manuscript of Marco Polo's journeys in Paris (Bibliothèque nationale de France, MS fr. 2810, fol. 84r). 42. The ‘Genoese’ map is Florence, Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, Portolano 1. It is reproduced in Cristoforo Colombo e l'apertura degli spazi: mostra storico-cartografica, ed. Guglielmo Cavallo (Rome, Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, 1992), 1: 492–93. For Pierre Desceliers's world map of 1550 see note 28. On Desceliers's map the battle of the pygmies and cranes is depicted in North America. 43. The Caverio chart is in Paris (Bibliothèque nationale de France, Cartes et plans, SH archives 1). It is reproduced in Nebenzahl, Atlas of Columbus (see note 8), 41–43, and at a larger scale in the eleven sheet black-and-white facsimile provided in Edward L. Stevenson, Marine World Chart of Nicolo de Caneiro Januensis 1502 (circa) (New York, American Geographical Society and the Hispanic Society of America, 1908). On the influence of Caverio's chart on Waldseemüller's Carta marina, see Stevenson, Marine World Chart, 81–110; and Robert W. Karrow, Mapmakers of the Sixteenth Century (Chicago, Published for The Newberry Library by Speculum Orbis Press, 1993), 582. 44. The King-Hamy map is San Marino, Calif., Huntington Library, HM 45. An excellent high-resolution image of this map is in the online catalogue of the Huntington Library; it is also illustrated in A. E. Nordenskiöld, Periplus: An Essay on the Early History of Charts and Sailing-Directions (Stockholm, Norstedt, 1897; New York, B. Franklin, 1967), plate 45. The Cantino chart is Modena, Biblioteca Estense Universitaria, C. G. A. 2, reproduced in Nebenzahl, Atlas of Columbus (see note 8), 35–37; and in Armando Cortesão and Avelino Teixeira da Mota, Portugaliae monumenta cartographica (Lisbon, Comissão Executiva das Comemorações do Quinto Centenário da Morte do Infante D. Henrique, 1960–1962), vol. 1, plate 5, with discussion and transcriptions and English translations of the map's texts in 7–13. 45. A good illustration of India and its various monstrous races from a 15th-century manuscript of Le livre des merveilles du monde (see note 25) is reproduced in Friedman, The Monstrous Races (see note 4), 159.
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