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Frederick II's crusade: an example of Christian–Muslim diplomacy

2010; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 25; Issue: 2 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/09518967.2010.540419

1743-940X

Hiroshi Takayama,

Archaeology and Historical Studies

Abstract Frederick II's crusade is unique in the bloody history of crusades for its success in recapturing Jerusalem through negotiations with the sultan of Egypt without any battles. Here Frederick II's diplomatic relations with Muslim rulers, particularly al-Kāmil, sultan of Egypt are reconstructed, by examining available sources in order to understand this crusade in terms of his long relationship with Muslim rulers. Keywords: Frederick IIcrusadeJerusalemdiplomacyenvoycross-cultural contacts Notes 1. Amari Amari, Michele Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia, 2nd ed., 3 vols, in 5 parts. Catania: Romeo Prampolini, 1933–9 (1st ed., 3 vols. Florence, 1854–72) [Google Scholar], Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia, 3–2: 634–70. 2. Blochet Blochet, E. 1902. Les relations diplomatiques des Hohenstaufen avec les sultans d'Égypte. Revue historique, 80: 51–64. [Google Scholar], 'Les relations diplomatiques des Hohenstaufen avec les sultans d'Égypte'. 3. Patrologia Latina Patrologia Latina. J.P. 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Gottschalk, Al-Malik al-Kāmil, 141; Stürner, Friedrich II., 145. 32. 'Aynī, 'Iqd al-Jumān, in RHC, Hist. orient. 2–1: 186–7; Kitāb Jāmi' al-Tawārīkh, in Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 510 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 246). 33. Maqrīzī, Kitāb al-Sulūk, 1: 258–9; Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 518 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 260). 34. Ibn W il, Mufarrij, 4: 206. 35. Baybars al-Man rī, Zubda al-Fikra, quoted in 'Aynī, 'Iqd al-Jumān, in RHC, Hist. orient. 2–1: 186–7; Jāmi' al-Tawārīkh, in Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 510 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 246). 36. Makīn, Akhbār al-Ayyūbīyīn (Cahen, 'La chronique des Ayyoubides'), 136; French trans., Chronique des Ayyoubides, 38. 37. Nuwayrī, Nihāya al-Arab, 23: 140; Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 512 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 249). 38. Ibn Khaldūn, Kitāb al-'Ibar, 5: 418; Amari, Appendice alla Biblioteca, testo arabo, 10 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 242). 39. Abū al-Fidā', Kitāb al-Mukhta ar, 3:137–8, 141; in RHC, Hist. orient.1: 102–3; Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 418 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 103–4). 40. Makīn, Akhbār al-Ayyūbīyīn (Cahen, 'La chronique des Ayyoubides'), 136; French trans., Chronique des Ayyoubides, 38. 41. Ibn W il, Mufarrij, 4: 206. 42. Abū al-Fidā', Kitāb al-Mukhta ar, 3: 138; in RHC, Hist. orient.1: 102; Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 418 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 103). 43. Ibn Khaldūn, Kitāb al-'Ibar, 5: 418; Amari, Appendice alla Biblioteca, testo arabo, 10 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 242). 44. Makīn, Akhbār al-Ayyūbīyīn (Cahen, 'La chronique des Ayyoubides'), 136; French trans., Chronique des Ayyoubides, 38. We can see almost the same story in the annals of Maqrīzī. Maqrīzī, Kitāb al-Sulūk, 1: 259; Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 518 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 260). 45. Maqrīzī, Kitāb al-Sulūk, 1: 260; Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 519 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 261). 46. Al-Mu'aam died on Friday the last day of Dhū al-Qa'da in the year of 624 (12 Nov. 1227). See Makīn, Akhbār al-Ayyūbīyīn (Cahen, 'La chronique des Ayyoubides'), 136; French trans., Chronique des Ayyoubides, 38. Ibn al-Athīr Ibn al-Athīr (†1233). Abū al-asan 'Alī Ibn al-Athīr. Al-Kāmil fī al-Trīkh, 12 vols. Leiden, 1851–71. repr. Beirut: Dār [Sdot]ādir; Dār Bayrūt, 1965-66 with a new index in 1967. Partial edition: Amari, Biblioteca arabo-sicula, testo arabo, 214–316 (Italian trans., Biblioteca arabo-sicula, versione italiana, 1: 353–507). English trans.: D.S. Richard, The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athīr for the Crusading Period from al-Kāmil fī'l-Ta'rīkh. 3 Parts. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006–8 [Google Scholar], Al-Kāmil, 12: 471 (English trans, Richard, Part 3: 284). Cf. Gottschalk, Al-Malik al-Kāmil, 145 and note 2 (for sources). 47. Richard of San Germano, 146. Abū al-Faāyl, Tārīkh Man⋅ rī, 329 (folio 161a); Amari, Seconda Appendice alla Biblioteca, testo arabo, 29 (Biblioteca, versione italiana. Appendice, 47). Richard of San Germano informs us that Thomas de Aquino was sent in July 1227: 'Thomas de Aquino Acerrarum comes in Syriam transfretat mense Iulii.' Abū al-Faāyl states that the emperor (imbira ūr) sent his representative to Acre in 624 AH (22 Dec. 1226–11 Dec. 1227) without mentioning his name. 48. Maqrīzī, Kitāb al-Sulūk, 1: 260; Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 519 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 261). 49. Tārīkh Ba ārika, 4: 51 (Eng. trans. 4: 105); Kitāb Sīar al-Abā', in Amari Biblioteca, testo arabo, 322 (Biblioteca, versione italiana,1: 518–9). 50. Abū al-Faāyl, Tārīkh Man⋅ rī, 338 (folio 165b); Amari, Seconda Appendice alla Biblioteca, testo arabo, 30 (Biblioteca, versione italiana. Appendice, 49–50). 51. Maqrīzī, Kitāb al-Sulūk, 1: 260; Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 519 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 261). 52. Maqrīzī, Kitāb al-Sulūk, 1: 260; Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 519 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 261). 53. Runciman, A History of the Crusades, 3: 186. Van Cleve, 'The Crusade of Frederick II', 449. Idem, The Emperor Frederick II, 216. 54. Richard of San Germano, 146. 55. Abū al-Faāyl, Tārīkh Man⋅ rī, 339 (folio 166a); Amari, Seconda Appendice alla Biblioteca, testo arabo, 30 (Biblioteca, versione italiana. Appendice, 50–51). 56. Sib Ibn al-Jawzī Sib Ibn al-Jawzī (†1257). Mir'āt al-Zamān fī Tārkh al-A'yān, vol. 8 in 2 parts. Hyderabad: Maba'a Majlis Dā'ira al-Ma'ārif al-'Uthmānīya, 1951–52. Partial English trans.: Gabrieli, Arab Historians of the Crusades, 273–5 [Google Scholar], Mir'āt al-Zamān, 2: 643. 57. Abū Shāma Shāma, Abū Tarājim Rijāl al-Qarnayn al-Sādis wal-Sābi' "al-Ma'rūf bil-Dhayl 'alā al-Rawatayn" (Supplement to Kitāb al-Raw[ddot]atayn). Beyrut: Dār al-Jīr, 1974 (1st ed. 1947). Another edition and French trans.: RHC, Hist. orient. 5 [Google Scholar], Tarājim Rijāl al-Qarnayn, 151; in RHC, Hist. orient. 5: 185. Cf. 'Aynī, 'Iqd al-Jumān, in RHC, Hist. orient. 2–1: 186; Kitāb Jāmi' al-Tawārīkh, in Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 510 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 246). 58. Ibn Kathīr, Al-Bidāya wal-Nihāya, 13:126. Cf. 'Aynī, 'Iqd al-Jumān, in RHC, Hist. orient. 2–1: 186; Kitāb Jāmi' al-Tawārīkh, in Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 510 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 246). 59. afadī, Kitāb al-Wāfī, in Amari, Seconda Appendice alla Biblioteca, testo arabo, 13 (Biblioteca, versione italiana. Appendice, 18). 60. 'Archiepiscopus Panormitanus nuntius a Soldano ad Cesarem rediens, elephantem unum, mulos et pretiosa quedam alia munera ipsi Imperatori detulit ex parte Soldani'. Richard of San Germano, 149. 61. Al-Mu'aam died on the first day of Dhū al-ijja (12 Nov. 1227). Sib Ibn al-Jawzī, Mir'āt al-Zamān, 2: 644–52. afadī, Kitāb al-Wāfī, in Amari, Seconda Appendice alla Biblioteca, testo arabo, 13 (Biblioteca, versione italiana. Appendice, 18). Some other chronicles mention Friday at the end of the month of Dhū al-Qa'da (9 Nov. 1227) as the day of al-Mu'aam's death. Makīn, Akhbār al-Ayyūbīyīn (Cahen, 'La chronique des Ayyoubides'), 137; French trans., Chronique des Ayyoubides, 39. Ibn al-Athīr, Al-Kāmil, 12: 471 (English trans., Richard, Part 3: 284). The last Friday of Dhū al-Qa'da of 624 AH is 9 Nov. 1127. For the sources concerning the date of al-Mu'aam's death, see Gottschalk, Al-Malik al-Kāmil, 145 note 2. 62. afadī, Kitāb al-Wāfī, in Amari, Seconda Appendice alla Biblioteca, testo arabo, 13 (Biblioteca, versione italiana. Appendice, 18). 63. Ibn Khaldūn, Kitāb al-'Ibar, 5: 418; Amari, Appendice alla Biblioteca, testo arabo, 10 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 243). 64. 'Imperator apud Barolum pascha Domini magnifice celebrat in Omni gaudio et exultatione, quia sicut ex litteris tunc didicerat Thome de Aquino Acerrarum comitis ad suum seruitium in Syria existentis, illis diebus Coradinus Soldanus Damasci mortuus fuerat'. Richard of San Germano, 150. 65. Richard of San Germano, 150 and note 7. 66. Al-Kāmil marched from Egypt to Syria in Sha'bān (6 Jul.–3 Aug.1228)(Ibn Abī al-Damm Ibn Abī al-Damm (†1244). Shihāb al-Dīn Ibrāhīm b. 'Abd Allāh. Kitāb al-Shamārīkh fī al-Tawārīkh. Partial edition in Richard, 'The Crusade of Frederick II and the [Hdot]amāh Succession' [Google Scholar], 195), or Ramaān (4 Aug.–2 Sep.)(Ibn W il, Mufarrij, 4: 226), or Shawwāl (3 Sep.–1 Oct. 1228)(Ibn al-Athīr, 12: 479). Makīn, Akhbār al-Ayyūbīyīn (Cahen, 'La chronique des Ayyoubides'), 137; French trans., Chronique des Ayyoubides, 41. Ibn al-Athīr, Al-Kāmil, 12: 482; Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 315 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 1: 506), (English trans., Richard, Part 3: 293). Tārīkh Ba ārika, 4: 51 (Eng. trans. 4: 106); Kitāb Sīar al-Abā', in Amari Biblioteca, testo arabo, 323 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 1: 519-20). Baybars al-Man rī, Zubda al-Fikra, quoted in 'Aynī, Kitāb Jāmi' al-Tawārīkh in Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 511 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 248). 67. 'Soldanus vero Babyloniae, cum ejus adventum in Syriam cognovisset, misit ei xenia multa et pretiosa in auro et argento, in pannis sericis et lapidibus pretiosis, in camelis et elephantis, in ursis et simiis, et aliis rebus mirificis, quibus omnibus regiones abstinent occidentis'. Roger of Wendover Roger of Wendover: Roger de Wendover. 1886–89. Liber qui dicitur 'Flores Historiarum' Edited by: Hewlett, H.G. 3 vols, London [Google Scholar], Flores historiarum, 2: 351. 68. 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Baybars al-Man rī, Zubda al-Fikra, quoted in 'Aynī, Kitāb Jāmi' al-Tawārīkh in Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 511 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 248). 71. Tārīkh Ba ārika, 4: 51 (Eng. trans. 4: 106); Kitāb Sīar al-Abā', in Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 323 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 1: 519). 72. Abū al-Faāyl, Tārīkh Man⋅ rī, 352 (folio 172b); Amari, Seconda Appendice alla Biblioteca, testo arabo, 32 (Biblioteca, versione italiana. Appendice, 55–6). 73. Maqrīzī, Kitāb al-Sulūk, 1: 266; Amari Biblioteca, testo arabo, 520 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 263). 74. Ibn W il, Mufarrij, 4: 242; Gabrieli, Arab Historians, 270. Maqrīzī, Kitāb al-Sulūk, 1: 258, 266–8; Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 519–20 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 262–3). 75. Makīn, Akhbār al-Ayyūbīyīn (Cahen, 'La chronique des Ayyoubides'), 137; French trans., Chronique des Ayyoubides, 41. Cf. 'Aynī, Kitāb Jāmi' al-Tawārīkh, in Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 511 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 247). For alā al-Dīn al-Irbilī, see Ibn Khallikān, Wafayāt al-A'yān, 1: 184–7. According to Ibn Khallikān, al-Kāmil sent alā al-Dīn al-Irbilī to Frederick II as his envoy when the emperor arrived in Syria in 626 AH. 76. Abū al-Faāyl, Tārīkh Man rī, 370 (folio 181b); Amari, Seconda Appendice alla Biblioteca, testo arabo, 33 (Biblioteca, versione italiana. Appendice, 56). 77. Maqrīzī, Kitāb al-Sulūk, 1: 268; Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 520 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 263). 78. Abū al-Faāyl, Tārīkh Man rī, 370 (folio 181b); Amari, Seconda Appendice alla Biblioteca, testo arabo, 33 (Biblioteca, versione italiana. Appendice, 56–7). 79. Ibn W il, Mufarrij, 4: 242; Gabrieli, Arab Historians, 270. 80. Maqrīzī, Kitāb al-Sulūk, 1: 270; Amari, Biblioteca, testo arabo, 522 (Biblioteca, versione italiana, 2: 266). 81. 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