The Theoretical Framing of a Social Problem: The Case of Societal Reaction to Cults in Israel
2007; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 14; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês
10.1080/13537120701705882
ISSN1743-9086
Autores Tópico(s)Crime, Deviance, and Social Control
ResumoClick to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Notes 1. Following James Beckford, Cult Controversies: the Societal Response to the New Religious Movements, New York, 1985, I use the term ‘cult’ to refer to popular and pejorative usage, and ‘anti cult’ or ‘counter cult’ when referring to the negative reactions to Human Potential and the New Religious Movements. For purposes of greater legibility, I will refrain in the remainder of this article from using quotation marks to indicate the subjectivity of labelling a movement a cult or an anti-cult. 2. Craig Forsyth and Marion Olivier, ‘The Theoretical Framing of a Social Problem: Some Conceptual Notes on Satanic Cults’, Deviant Behavior, Vol. 11 (1990), pp. 281–92. 3. William Bainbridge, ‘Cultural Genetics’, in Rodney Starks (ed.), Religious Movements: Genesis, Exodus and Numbers, New York, 1985, pp. 157–98; J. Beckford, Cult Controversies, 1985; James Richardson and Massimo Introvigne, ‘Brainwashing Theories in European Parliamentary and Administrative Reports on “Cults” and “Sects”’, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, Vol. 40, No. 2 (2001), pp. 143–68; Thomas Robbins, Cults, Converts and Charisma, London, 1988; Rodney Stark and Sims Bainbridge, The Future of Religion, Berkeley, 1985. 4. Erik Cohen and Hermona Grunau, Seker HaMi'utim B'Israel (Survey of Minorities in Israel), Jerusalem, 1972. 5. Andy Court, ‘5000 Israeli Members of Cults’, Jerusalem Post, 24 February, 1987; State of Israel—Ministry of Education, Doch HaVa'adah HaBe'inMisradit L'Bdikat Noseh HaKitot B'Israel (Report of the Inter-Ministerial Commission of Inquiry on Cults), Jerusalem: Ministry of Education, 1987. 6. These figures may not be accurate. On the one hand inflating figures can be a useful tool for anti-cult movement activists to create moral panic or concern about an ‘epidemic’. On the other, it can give more publicity to groups that are interested in attracting more people (see discussion in Joel Best, Damned Lies and Statistics: Untangling Numbers from the Media, Politicians and Activists, Berkeley, 2001); Eric Goode and Nachman Ben-Yehuda, Moral Panics: the Social Construction of Deviance, Cambridge, MA, 1994, p. 50. 7. Stark and Bainbridge, Future of Religion, 1985. 8. Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi, ‘New Religions in Israel: 1970–1990’, in Zvi Sobel and Benjamin Bet-Hallahmi (eds.), Tradition, Innovation, Conflict: Religion in Contemporary Israel, Albany, 1991, pp. 217–18. 9. Mordechai Kaffman, ‘Drachim L'Hitmodedut ‘Im Darke Ha Pitui Shel HaKitot’ (‘Coping with Cult Enticement’), Iggereth L’ hinuch, May, 1983, p. 61; Haym Shapiro, ‘Preference for Cults Prompts 600 Kibbutzniks to Leave’, Jerusalem Post, 4 March, 1987; for a general discussion see Eileen Barker, ‘New Religious Movements: their Incidence and Significance’, in Bryan Wilson and Jamie Cresswell (eds.), New Religious Movements: Challenge and Response, London, 1999, pp. 15–31. 10. Dick Anthony, Thomas Robbins, Madeleine Doucas and Thomas Curtis, ‘Patients and Pilgrims: Changing Attitudes toward Psychotherapy of Converts to Eastern Mysticism’, American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 20, No. 6 (1977), pp. 861–85; Robert Bellah, ‘New Religious Consciousness and the Crisis in Modernity’, in Charles Glock and Robert Bellah (eds.), The New Religious Consciousness, Berkeley, 1970, pp. 333-52; Robert Bellah and Frederick Greenspahn, Uncivil Religion: Interreligious Hostility in America, New York, 1987; Charles Glock and Robert Bellah (eds.), The New Religious Consciousness, Berkeley, 1973. 11. Theodore Roszak, The Making of a Counter-Culture, New York, 1969, pp. 130–40. 12. Shimon Amir, Darke' HaHashpa'a Shel HaKitot B'Israel (Influences of Cults in Israel), unpublished MA thesis, Tel Aviv University, 1987. 13. Roszak, Counter-Culture, 1969, p. 137. 14. Amir, Cults in Israel, 1987, p. 69. 15. For example, Amir, Cults in Israel, 1987, p. 69; Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi, Al Ha Ge'ulah Ha Myiadit Ve'Achshavit B'Israel', (‘On instant actual salvation in Israel’), I'ton 77, Vol. 49–50, No. 2 (1984); Gabriel Cavaglion, Ha Tguvah HaHevratit Neged Kitot B'Israel (The Societal Reaction Against Cults in Israel), MA dissertation, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1990; Amir Zohar, Hashva'a Bein Meshikha L'Kitot V'Meshikha L'Teshuvah (Attraction to Cults and Attraction to Teshuvah: a Comparison), MA thesis, Bar Ilan University, 1986. 16. Kaffman, Coping with Cult Enticement', 1983, p. 61. 17. Gabi Zohar, ‘Osher E'in Lo Sof: ‘Al Tofa'at HaKitot HaMistiot, HaKevutzot Hadashot, V'HaMaratonim HaPsichologim B'Israel (Infinite Happiness: the Phenomenon of Mystical Cults, New Groups and Psychological Marathons in Israel), Tel Aviv, 1992, pp. 13–45. 18. Beit-Hallahmi, New Religions, 1991, pp. 217–18; Beit-Hallahmi, Despair and Deliverance: Private Salvation in Contemporary Israel, Albany, 1992; Nurit Zaidman-Dvir and Stephen Sharot, ‘The Response of Israeli Society to the New Religious Movements: the ISKON and Teshuva’, Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, Vol. 31, No. 3 (1992), pp. 279–95. 19. Mordechai Kaffman, ‘The Use of Transcendental Meditation to Promote Social Progress in Israel’, The Cultic Studies Journal, Vol. 3, No. 1 (1986), pp. 135–6; A. Zohar, Attraction to Cults, 1986; G. Zohar, Infinite Happiness, 1992, pp. 13–45. 20. Zaidman-Dvir and Sharot, ‘Response of Israeli Society’, 1992, pp. 279–95. 21. Cavaglion, Societal Reaction, 1990, pp. 55–68; Beit-Hallahmi, New Religions, 1991, pp. 217–18. 22. See Howard Becker, Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance, New York, 1963, p. 147; Joseph Gusfield, ‘Moral Passage: the Symbolic Process in Public Designation of Deviance’, Social Problems, Vol. 15, No. 2 (1967), pp. 175–88; Edwin Schur, The Politics of Deviance, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1980. 23. Emile Durkheim, Division of Labor in Society, New York, Free Press, 1947, p. 102. 24. Steve Box, Deviance, Reality and Society, London, 1971, p. 27. 25. Kai Erikson, Wayward Puritans: A Study of the Sociology of Deviance. New York, 1966, Chs 1 and 2. 26. Elliot Currie, ‘Crimes Without Criminals: Witchcraft and its Control in Renaissance Europe’, Law and Society Review, Vol. 3, No. 1 (1968), pp. 7–32. 27. See Barker, ‘New Religious Movements’, 1999, p. 20; Roy Wallis, The Elementary Forms of the New Religious Life, London, 1983. 28. John Hall, ‘The Apocalypse at Jonestown’, in Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony (eds.), In Gods We Trust: New Patterns of Religious Pluralism in America, New Brunswick, 1981, pp. 333–42; Thomas Robbins, Cults, Converts and Charisma, London, 1988. 29. See Peter Berger, ‘The Sociological Study of Sectarianism’, Social Research, Vol. 21, No. 4 (1954), pp. 467–85; Geoffrey Nelson, ‘The Concept of Cult’, Sociological Review, Vol. 16, No. 3 (1968), pp. 649–81; Bryan Wilson, ‘An Analysis of Sect Development’, American Sociological Review, Vol. 24, No.1 (1958), pp. 3–15. 30. See ‘Cults: Letters to the Editor’ Jerusalem Post, 5 March, 1982; ‘The Cult of Awareness: Letters to the Editor’, Jerusalem Post, 5 April, 1987. 31. Harold Garfinkel, ‘Conditions of Successful Degradation Ceremonies’, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 61 (1956), pp. 420–4. 32. Nachman Ben-Yehuda, The Politics and Morality of Deviance, Albany, 1990; Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality: a Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge, Garden City, NY, 1966; Stuart Wright, ‘Public Agency Involvement in Government–Religious Movement Confrontations’, in David Bromley and Gordon Melton (eds.), Cults, Religion and Violence, Cambridge, 2002, pp. 102–22. 33. Beit-Hallahmi, New Religions, 1991, pp. 217–18. 34. Zaidman-Dvir and Sharot, ‘Response of Israeli Society’, 1992, pp. 279–95. 35. See for example Gabi Zohar Hare Krishna Holel S'arah (‘Hare Krishna Caused a Storm’), Yediot Ahronot, 11 April, 1982; Gabi Zohar, Hare Krishna, Min HaMesukanot L'Guf V'L'Nefesh Shel HaAdam (‘Hare Krishna, Among the Most Dangerous Cults for the Mind and the Body’), Al- ha-Mishmar, 7 March, 1982. 36. Quoted in Lawrence Strassberg, ‘A Jew Has to Believe in Something, But Why This? Krishna in Israel’, Nation Magazine, 24 February, 1989. 37. See, for example, Gabi Zohar ‘Al Sentologia, Totalitariut V'Shkarim (‘Scientology: Totalitarian Lies’), Ha-Aretz, 11 November, 1983; Gabi Zohar, ‘Al Est V'Sakanot Nafshiot (‘On Est and Mental Dangers’), Al-ha-Mishmar, 11 March, 1982. 38. Beit-Hallahmi, Despair and Deliverance, 1992; Emin Association in Israel, Mismach Tguvah L'Doch HaVa'ada (Reaction to the Inter-Ministerial Inquiry Commission Report); Emin, Hod Hasharon, 1987. 39. It is interesting to note that within the various streams of Judaism, from liberal and quasi-secular Reform to ultra-orthodox and Chassidic fringes, the attempt to label other denominations as a cult is very common. See, for example, Herbert Danziger, ‘Toward a Redefinition of Sects and Cults: Orthodox Judaism in the United States and Israel’, Comparative Social Research, Vol. 10, No. 1 (1987), pp. 113–23; Aharon Tapper, ‘The Cult of Aish Ha Torah Ba'alei Teshuva and the New Religious Movement Phenomenon’, The Jewish Journal of Sociology, Vol. 44, No. 1 (2002), pp. 5–29. But in the particular case of mystical Eastern groups foreign to Judaism there was a common concern across the various streams. See, for example, Sandy Andron, Cultivating Cult Evading: A Teachers’ Guide, Miami, FL, Central Agency for the Jewish Education, 1983; Central Conference of American Rabbis, ‘The Cultic Proselytization of Our Youth’, Reports and Papers, New York, 1988; various newsletters of the Yad L'Achim Organization, 1988–90; for a discussion of ultra-orthodox political activities see Menachem Friedman, ‘Life Tradition and Book Tradition in the Development of Ultraorthodox Judaism’, in Shlomo Deshen, Charles Liebman and Moshe Shokheid (eds.), Israeli Judaism, New Brunswick, NY, 1995, pp. 127–48; Goode and Ben-Yehuda, Moral Panics, 1994, pp. 49–50. 40. Haym Shapiro, ‘Cult Members Claim Violation of Leaders’ Rights’, Jerusalem Post, 1 February, 1987; M. Kaffman, ‘Coping with Cult Enticement’, p. 61; Mordechai Kaffman, ‘Transcendental Meditation’, pp. 135–6; Iris Milner, Mahapecha Psichiatrit (‘A Psychiatric Revolution’), Ha-Aretz, 24 November, 1989; State of Israel- Israeli Police, Doch Modi'ini (Intelligence Investigation on Cults), Jerusalem, Police Headquarters, 1982; Bernard Josephs, ‘Soul Traders Abuse our Laws M.K. Says’, Jerusalem Post, 5 February, 1987; Charles Hoffman, ‘Education Ministry Condemns Cults’, Jerusalem Post, 24 February, 1983; G. Zohar, ‘On Est’, 1982, G. Zohar, Anashim M'Kokhav Haher: ‘Al Sentologia (‘People from Another Planet: on Scientology’) Al-ha-Mishmar, 8 March, 1982, Zohar, Meditatzia: Opium L’ Hamonim (‘Meditation: Opium for the Masses’), Al-ha-Mishmar, 9 March, 1982, Zohar ‘Al Hitztarfut Benei Kibutzim (‘On Kibbutz Members Joining Cults’), Al-ha-Mishmar, 24 March, 1982. 41. Beit-Hallahmi, Despair and Deliverance, 1992, pp. 38–9; Internet Portal www. Hareshima.com. 42. Rabbi A. Feld, personal communication, 1989. 43. Dov Fisch, Jews for Nothing: On Cults, Intermarriage and Assimilation, Jerusalem, 1984. 44. For secular activists, NRS was perceived as a challenge to established institutions of the modern state based on human rights, secular, rationalist and individualist values. The federation of secular kibbutzim fought missionary cults as they fought alcohol, drugs and the ‘return to Judaism’. On the contrary, for religious activists, NRMs, similar to established Christian Missionaries, challenged the core of Judaism and rabbinical and religious council power and influence in the economic and social system of the country. See Zaidman-Dvir and Sharot, ‘Response of Israeli Society’, 1992, pp. 285–6. In this group, return to Judaism was portrayed as a necessary antidote and solution to cults. 45. Rav Ovadia Yoseph, cited in Action, 1982. 46. Moti Mann, B’’Milte'ot HaMoonis (‘In the Jaws of Moonies’), E'rev Shabat, 23 February, 1990. 47. Itzik Saban, Pulhan Kat HaSatan: Bat 19 Sarfah Et Ragle'ha (‘The Cult of Satan: a 19 Year Old Girl Burned Her Legs’) Ma'ariv, 22 October, 1995. 48. Rabbi A. Feld, personal communication, 1989; Feld cited also in Rachel Ginzberg, ‘Cults in Israel: Dangers from Within’, The Jewish Homemaker, Vol. 12, 1997 (online edition). 49. Andron, Cultivating Cult Evading, 1983. 50. Dvora Waysman, ‘A Relaxed Return’, Jerusalem Post, 11 November, 1982; for a general discussion see Saul Levine, Radical Departures, New York, 1983, Chs 1–3. 51. State of Israel—Ministry of Education, Report, 1987, pp. 10–18. 52. David Bromley and Anson Shupe, Strange Gods: The Great American Cult Scare, Boston, MA, 1981. 53. State of Israel—Ministry of Education, Report, 1987, p. 17. 54. Gordon Melton, ‘Anti-Cultists in the United States: a Historical Perspective’, in New Religious Movements: Challenge and Response, Bryan Wilson and Jamie Cresswell (eds.), London,1999, pp. 15–31; Gordon Melton and David Bromley, ‘Lessons from the Past, Perspective for the Future’, in David Bromley and Gordon Melton (eds.), Cults, Religion and Violence, Cambridge, 2002, pp. 229–44; Richardson and Introvigne, ‘Brainwashing’, 2001, pp. 143–68. 55. Erikson, Wayward Puritans, 1966, Chs 1–3. 56. Erich Goode, Deviant Behavior, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1994. 57. Goode and Ben-Yehuda, Moral Panics, 1994, 49–50. 58. Ben-Yehuda, Deviance, 1990, p. 6; Schur, Politics of Deviance, 1980, p. 135. 59. Joseph Gusfield, Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics and the American Temperance Movement, Urbana, IL, 1963; Joseph Gusfield, The Culture of Public Problems, Chicago, IL, 1981; Malcolm Spector and John Kitsuse, Constructing Social Problems, Menlo Park, CA, 1977. 60. For Israel see Amir, Cults in Israel, 1987, p. 115; for a general discussion see Lita Schwartz and Florence Kaslow, ‘Religious Cults, the Individual and the Family’, Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, Vol. 5, No. 2 (1979), pp. 15–26; Bromley and Shupe, Strange Gods, 1981. 61. Carroll Stoner and Jo Anne Parke, All God's Children. The Cult Experience: Salvation or Slavery?, Radnor, PA, 1977. 62. Roy Wallis, ‘Societal Reaction to Scientology: a Study in the Sociology of Deviant Religion’, in Roy Wallis (ed.), Sectarianism: Analysis of Religious and Non-Religious Sects, New York, 1975, pp. 86–116. 63. G. Zohar, 1992, Infinite Happiness, pp. 197–204. 64. State of Israel—Israeli Police, Intelligence Investigation on Cults, Jerusalem, 1982 p. 3. 65. See personal communication with author, December, 1989. 66. Beckford, Cult Controversies, 1985; see also Ben-Yehuda, Deviance, 1990; John Clark, ‘On the Further Study of Destructive Cultism’, in David Halperin (ed.), Psychodynamic Perspectives on Religions, Sects and Cults, Boston, MA, 1983, pp. 363–8. 67. Marc Galanter, ‘Charismatic Religious Sects and Psychiatry: an Overview’, American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 132, No. 12 (1982), pp. 1539–48; Edward Levine, ‘Deprograming Without Tears’, Society, Vol. 17, No. 3 (1980), pp. 34–8. 68. Karl Menninger, Man Against Himself, New York, 1938; Peter Olsson, ‘Adolescent Involvement with the Supernatural and Cults or New Bottles for Old Wine’, in David Halperin (ed.), Psychodynamic Perspectives on Religions, Sects and Cults, Boston, MA, 1983, pp. 235–56. 69. Ivan Illich, Medical Nemesis, London, 1976. 70. Moshe Halevi-Spero, ‘Individual Psychodynamic Intervention with the Cult Devotee’, in David Halperin (ed.), Psychodynamic Perspectives on Religions, Sects and Cults, Boston, MA, 1983, pp. 295–316. 71. State of Israel—Ministry of Education, Report, 1987, p. 296. 72. State of Israel—Ministry of Education, Report, 1987, p. 295. 73. Kaffman, ‘Coping with Cult Enticement’, 1983, p. 61. 74. Franklin Maleson, ‘Dilemmas in the Evaluation and Management of Religious Cultists’, American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 138, No. 7 (1981), pp. 925–9; Louis West and Margaret Singer, ‘Cults, Quacks and Non- Professional Therapies’, in Harold Kaplan, Alfred Freeman and Benjamin Sadock (eds.), Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry, Baltimore, MY, 1980, pp. 3245–58. 75. Beit-Hallahmi, Despair and Deliverance, 1992, p. 38. 76. Brock Kilbourne and James Richardson, ‘Psychotherapy and New Religions in a pluralistic society’, American Psychologist, Vol. 39, No. 3 (1984), pp. 237–51; Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony, ‘Deprogramming, Brainwashing and the Medicalization of Deviant Religious Groups’, Social Problems, Vol. 29, No. 3 (1982), pp. 280–91. 77. Roy Wallis, ‘The Dynamics of Change in the Human Potential Movement’, in Rodney Stark (ed.), Religious Movements: Genesis, Exodus and Numbers, New York, 1985, pp. 129–56. 78. For a general discussion, see Peter Conrad and Joseph Schneider, The Medicalization of Deviance, St. Louis, Mosby, 1980; Eliot Freidson, Profession of Medicine. New York, 1973. 79. Personal communication, November, 1988. 80. Beit- Hallahmi, Despair and Deliverance, 1992, p. 39. 81. See, for example, M. Pomerantz, ‘The Yogi is a Practical Man’, Jerusalem Post, 11 November, 1975. 82. Beit- Hallahmi, Despair and Deliverance, 1992, p. 39. 83. Yediot Ahronot, B'ni Hit'abed Biglalam (‘Because of Them my Son Committed Suicide’), 25 February, 1987; Nurit Dovrat, Kol Kach Shamen, Kol Kach Gadol (‘So Fat and So Saint’), Ma'ariv, 3 August, 1981; Ma'ariv, HaGuru Mehapes Miklat (‘The Guru in Search of Asylum’), 19 March, 1988; Iris Milner, HaMahapecha HaPsichiatrit (‘A Psychiatric Revolution’), Ha-Aretz, 24 November, 1989; Dan Petreanu, ‘Outlawed Millionaire Guru Evades Authority, Gets In’, Jerusalem Post, 16 July, 1988; for a general discussion, see James Beckford, ‘The mass media and new religious movements’, in Bryan Wilson and Jamie Creswell (eds.), New Religious Movements: Challenge and Response, London, 1999, pp. 103–19; Wallis, ‘Societal Reaction’, 1975, p. 86; Wallis, Salvation and Protests; Studies of Social and Religious Movements, New York, 1979; Andrew Pavlos, The Cult Experience, Westport, CT, 1982. 84. See Wallis, Roy, ‘Societal Reaction’, 1975, p. 103; Beckford, ‘The Mass Media’, 1999; for a theoretical discussion, see, for example, Anthony Downs, ‘Up and Down with Ecology: “the Issue-Attention Cycle”’, Public Interest, Vol. 32, No. 3 (1972), pp. 38–52. 85. Beit-Hallahmi, Despair and Deliverance, 1992, p. 42. 86. Zaidman-Dvir and Sharot, ‘Response of Israeli Society’, 1992, p. 28. 87. Josephs, ‘Soul Traders’, 1987; Charles Hoffman, ‘Education Ministry Condemns Cults’, Jerusalem Post, 24 February, 1983; Benny Morris, ‘Gov't. Panel to Investigate Foreign Cults’, Jerusalem Post, 30 October, 1981; Benny Morris, ‘Special Committee to Probe Spread of Cults in the Country’, Jerusalem Post, 21 February, 1982. 88. Amir, Influence of Cults, 1987, p. 339; Thomas Robbins and Dick Anthony, ‘Deprogramming, Brainwashing and the Medicalization of Deviant Religious Groups’, Social Problems, Vol. 29, No. 3 (1982) pp. 280–91; Beit-Hallahmi, Despair and Deliverance, 1992, p. 33; Saul Levine, ‘Alienated Jewish Youth and Religious Seminaries: an Alternative to Cults?’, in David Halperin (ed.), Psychodynamic Perspectives on Religions, Sects and Cults, Boston, MA, 1983, pp. 267–76. Amir's Master's thesis in Clinical Psychology reported signs of a ‘generally positive experience of cult members … Different from other studies no damage to self confidence was reported, the group provided meaning, an ideological sense of belonging, a common goal and a common path … they look happier’, p. 339. 89. Richardson and Introvigne, ‘Brainwashing Theories’, 2001, pp. 143–68. 90. Dick Anthony, Thomas Robbins and J. MacCarthy, ‘Legitimating Repression’, Society, Vol. 17, No. 3 1980, pp. 39–42. 91. Beit-Hallahmi, Despair and Deliverance, 1992, p. 43. 92. See Eileen Barker, ‘ Watching for Violence: A Comparative Analysis of the Roles of Five Types of Cult-watching Groups’, in David Bromley and Gordon Melton (eds.), Cults, Religion and Violence, Cambridge, 2002, pp. 123–48. 93. State of Israel—Ministry of Education, Report, 1987, pp. 7–8. 94. Stone and Parker, All God's Children, 1977; Flo Conway and Jim Siegelman. Snapping: America's Epidemic of Sudden Personality Change, New York, 1977. 95. Goode, Deviant Behavior, 1994, p. 93. 96. Box, Deviance, Reality and Society, 1971, p. 35. Durkheim, in Division of Labor, 1947, p. 102 wrote that moral scandals in small towns tend to bring people together. Shared indignation leads to a sense of public togetherness and a consolidation of common feelings. 97. Charles Liebman and Eliezer Don-Yehiya, Civil Religion in Israel: Traditional Judaism and Political Culture in the Jewish State, Berkeley, CA, 1983. 98. Liebman and Don-Yehiya, Civil Religion, p. 144. The problem of Zionism since the occupation of the territories in 1967, and the severe crisis of Zionism since 1973, have created a ‘re-Judaization’ of political discourse in Israel. Religion has become a source of energy for Zionism (Beit-Hallahmi, Despair and Deliverance, 1992, pp. 62–4; Zvi Sobel and Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi (eds.), Tradition, Innovation, Conflict: Jewishness and Judaism in Contemporary Israel, Albany, NY, 1991). Numerically, the relationship between the secular and the religious has not significantly changed, but the dynamic interplay has undergone a change in the direction of greater intrusiveness of religion, at least symbolically, than in the past. 99. Goode, Deviant Behavior, 1994, p. 94. 100. One unusual official action taken against an NRM occurred when the English leader of the Emin was refused entry to the country in 1989. Other sporadic activities included arrests and deportation of a Denver-based apocalyptic cult in early 1999. For other sporadic and ad-hoc actions see Stuart Wright, ‘Public Agency Involvement in Government-Religious Movement Confrontations’, in David Bromley and Gordon Melton (eds.), Cults, Religion and Violence, Cambridge, 2002, pp. 102–22. 101. Andrew Scull, ‘Deviance and Social Control’, in Neil Smelser (ed.), Handbook of Sociology, Newbury Park, CA, 1988, pp. 667–93. 102. See Anthony, Robbins and MacCarthy, ‘Legitimating Repression’, 1980, p. 41; Robbins and Anthony, In Gods We Trust, 1981. 103. Ben-Yehuda, Morality of Deviance, 1990, p. 69; Peter Conrad and Joseph Schneider, The Medicalization of Deviance, St Louis, MO, 1980; Austin Turk, Political Criminality: the Defiance and Defense of Authority, Beverly Hills, CA, 1982. 104. Gordon Melton, ‘Anti-Cultists in the United States: a Historical Perspective’, in Bryan Wilson and Jamie Cresswell (eds.), New Religious Movements: Challenge and Response, London, 1995, pp. 15–31; Thomas Robbins, ‘Volatility in Religious Movements’, in David Bromley and Gordon Melton (eds.), Cults, Religion and Violence, Cambridge, 2002, pp. 57–79. 105. Emin Association 1987; Israel Centre vs. State of Israel (HaMerkaz HaIsraeli Neged Medinat Israel) Supreme Court Appeal No. 529, 1985; Haym Shapiro, ‘Cult Members Claim Violation of Leaders’ Rights’, Jerusalem Post, 1 February, 1989; E'nat Berkowitz, Af ‘Al Pi Khen I Am (In Spite of All, I Am), Kol-ha-Yir, 13 October, 1989; Kol Ha'Ir: Yoter Meditatzia, Pahot Aids (‘More Meditation, Less AIDS’), 5 November, 1989. 106. Oded Mevorach, HaTiul HaMemushach Ahare’ HaSherut HaTzva'i (The Long Term Trip After the Military Service), PhD dissertation, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 1997; Dalith Simchay, HaShvil HaZe Mathil M'Kan (This Path Starts from Here), Tel Aviv, Prague, 2000, p. 78. 107. David Bromley and Gordon Melton, Cults, Religion and Violence, Cambridge, 2002. 108. Kai Kijaer-Hansen and Bodil Skjott, Facts & Myths About the Messianic Congregations in Israel, Jerusalem', United Christian Council and Caspari Centre, 1999, p. 25; see also, Irvin Zaretsky, ‘Jesus in Jerusalem 1973: Mission Impossible’, in Bernard Zvi Sobel (ed.), Hebrew Christianity: the Thirteen Tribes, New York, 1974, pp. 341–98. Additional informationNotes on contributorsGABRIEL CAVAGLIONGabriel Cavaglion is a senior lecturer in the department of criminology at the Ashkelon Academic.
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