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When was Cicero Happy? On Moments of Happiness in a Normal and Extraordinary Life

2011; Taylor & Francis; Volume: 85; Issue: 1 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/00397679.2011.631363

1502-7805

Gesine Manuwald,

Classical Antiquity Studies

Abstract This paper explores the question of whether any circumstances, events or activities can be identified that may have made Cicero feel that he and / or other people were experiencing a moment or period of happiness in their private or public lives. By reviewing meaningful excerpts from a variety of Ciceronian works, this contribution presents examples of possible conditions and instances of happiness in Cicero's life (as far as it is possible to discover the feelings of an individual exclusively on the basis of their writings to other people). While Cicero hardly ever mentions preconditions for his own 'happiness' or states explicitly that he is 'happy', it can be inferred that he took pleasure in a range of situations that are generally regarded as blessings for human beings, such as having a family or a comfortable home. His special intellectual capability and his political career presented Cicero with further possibilities of winning success and satisfaction. Yet Cicero's feelings of happiness in all respects seem to have a basic component oriented towards community. Because Cicero's personal life is so intertwined with his public life and he has also considered the issue philosophically, his emotional disposition in 'normal' and 'extraordinary' moments is of a particular quality: he was able to derive joy from beliefs such as that he had saved the Republic, beyond the ordinary pleasures of all human beings such as conversations with good friends. Notes Cf. e.g. Cic. Fin. 1.71; 2.41; 2.86–87; 3.42–43; 4.20; 4.30–31; 5.12; Tusc. 2.2; 3.58; 5.12–18. For the intellectual background in late Republican Rome cf. Rawson 1985 Rawson, E. 1985. Intellectual Life in the Late Roman Republic London [Google Scholar]. – On Cicero's philosophy and his 'sceptical' position cf. the overview by Gawlick / Görler 1994 Gawlick, G. / Görler, W. (1994) "Sechstes Kapitel. Cicero", in: H. Flashar (ed.), Die Philosophie der Antike. Band 4. Die Hellenistische Philosophie, pp. 991–1168. Basel (Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophie, Begründet von Friedrich Ueberweg, Völlig neubearbeitete Ausgabe). [Google Scholar]. Cf. Cic. Fin. 2.86: quoniam igitur omnis summa philosophiae ad beate vivendum refertur, idque unum expetentes homines se ad hoc studium contulerunt, beate autem vivere alii in alio, … – 'The whole aim of philosophy is to lead us to a happy life. It is for this reason alone that people have turned to philosophy. However, different thinkers have different conceptions of happiness.' [trans. R. Woolf]. Cf. OED, s.v. happy, a.: '4. a. Having a feeling of great pleasure or content of mind, arising from satisfaction with one's circumstances or condition; also in weakened sense: Glad, pleased.'; '5. a. Successful in performing what the circumstances require; apt, dexterous; felicitous.'; cf. also OLD, s.v. beatus: '1 Happy, fortunate. b (of experiences, periods of time, etc.) marked by happiness, happy; (of things) consisting in, bringing, happiness.' Although there is a wealth of literature on Cicero and on his philosophy, there do not seem to be any previous studies trying to investigate how a philosophical concept such as happiness translates into Cicero's personal life. Hence this contribution is mainly based on an analysis of Cicero's writings, with some emphasis on letters and also on speeches. Cf. Cic. Q. Fr. 3.7.2: nihil est enim perditius his hominibus, his temporibus. itaque ex re publica quoniam nihil iam voluptatis capi potest, cur stomacher nescio. litterae me et studia nostra et otium villaeque delectant maximeque pueri nostri. [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey]. Cf. Cic. Att. 1.5.7: quae tibi mandavi et quae tu intelleges convenire nostro Tusculano velim, ut scribis, cures, quod sine molestia tua facere poteris. nam nos ex omnibus molestiis et laboribus uno illo in loco conquiescimus.; Att. 1.6.2: tu velim, si qua ornamenta γυμνασιώδη reperire poteris quae loci sint eius quem tu non ignoras, ne praetermittas. nos Tusculano ita delectamur ut nobismet ipsis tum denique cum illo venimus placeamus. [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey] – Cf. also Cic. Att. 1.9.2 (March or April 67 BCE); 1.10.3–4 (c. May 67 BCE); 1.11.3 (Aug. 67 BCE). Cf. Cic. Att. 5.11.1: ne provincia nobis prorogeretur, per fortunas, dum ades, quicquid provideri provide. non dici potest quam flagrem desiderio urbis, quam vix harum rerum insulsitatem feram. – 'For mercy's sake, take every means you can find, so long as you are in town, to guard against any extension of my tenure. I cannot tell you how passionately I long for Rome, how difficult I find it to endure the insipidity of my present environment.' [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey]. Cf. Cic. Fam. 2.12.2 : urbem, urbem, mi Rufe, cole et in ista luce vive! omnis peregrinatio, quod ego ab adulescentia iudicavi, obscura et sordida est iis quorum industria Romae potest illustris esse. quod cum probe scirem, utinam in sententia permansissem! cum una mehercule ambulatiuncula atque uno sermone nostro omnis fructus provinciae non confero. spero me integritatis laudem consecutum: non erat minor ex contemnenda quam est ex conservata provincia. spem triumphi inicis: satis gloriose triumpharem, non essem quidem tam diu in desiderio rerum mihi carissimarum. sed, ut spero, propediem te videbo. – 'Rome! Stick to Rome, my dear fellow, and live in the limelight! Sojourn abroad of any kind, as I have thought from my youth upwards, is squalid obscurity for those whose efforts can win lustre in the capital. I knew this well enough, and I only wish I had stayed true to my conviction. I do assure you that in my eyes all I get from the province is not worth a single stroll, a single talk with you. I hope I have won some credit for integrity, but I should have gained as much of that by despising the province as I have by saving it from ruin. You suggest the hope of a Triumph. My Triumph would habe been glorious enough; at any rate I should not have been so long cut off from all that is dearest to me. However, I hope to see you soon.' [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey]. For an overview of relevant passages and some discussion of this aspect cf. Carcopino 1951 Carcopino, J. 1951. Cicero. The secrets of his correspondence 2 vol. London (orig.: Les secrets de la correspondance de Cicéron, 1947) [Google Scholar], 79–82. Cf. Cic. Fam. 9.24.3: et mehercule, mi Paete, extra iocum moneo te, quod pertinere ad beate vivendum arbitror, ut cum viris bonis, iucundis, amantibus tui vivas. nihil est aptius vitae, nihil ad beate vivendum accommodatius. nec id ad voluptatem refero sed ad communitatem vitae atque victus remissionemque animorum, quae maxime sermone efficitur familiari, qui est in conviviis dulcissimus, ut sapientius nostri quam Graeci; illi ' συμπόσια' aut 'σύνδειπνα,' id est compotationes aut concenationes, nos 'convivia,' quod tum maxime simul vivitur. vides, ut te philosophando revocare coner ad cenas. cura ut valeas; id foris cenitando facillime consequere. [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey]. Cf. Cic. Att. 4.10.1: ego hic pascor bibliotheca Fausti. fortasse tu putabas his rebus Puteolanis et Lucrinensibus. ne ista quidem desunt, sed mehercule a ceteris oblectationibus deseror et voluptat um propter rem publicam, sic litteris sustentor et recreor … – 'I am living here on Faustus' library – you perhaps think it's on these Puteolan and Lucrine commodities. Well, I have them too. But seriously, while all other amusements and pleasures have lost their charm because of my age and the state of our country, literature relieves and refreshes me.' [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey]. Cf. Cic. Cael. 46: an vos aliam causam esse ullam putatis cur in tantis praemiis eloquentiae, tanta voluptate dicendi, tanta laude, tanta gratia, tanto honore tam sint pauci semperque fuerint qui in hoc labore versentur? obterendae sunt omnes voluptates, relinquenda studia delectationis, ludus, iocus, convivium, sermo paene est familiarium deserendus. [trans. R. Gardner]. Cf. Cic. Att. 1.18.1: nihil mihi nunc scito tam deesse quam hominem eum quocum omnia quae me cura aliqua adficiunt una communicem, qui me amet, qui sapiat, quicum ego cum loquar nihil fingam, nihil dissimulem, nihil obtegam. abest enim frater ἀφελέστατος et amantissimus. † Metellus † non homo sed 'litus atque aer' et 'solitudo me a.' tu autem qui saepissime curam et angorem animi mei sermone et consilio levasti tuo, qui mihi et in publica re socius et in privatis omnibus conscius et omnium meorum sermonum et consiliorum particeps esse soles, ubinam es? ita sum ab omnibus destitutus ut tantum requietis habeam quantum cum uxore et filiola et mellito Cicerone consumitur. nam illae ambitiosae nostrae fucosaeque amicitiae sunt in quodam splendore forensi, fructum domesticum non habent. itaque cum bene completa domus est tempore matutino, cum ad forum stipati gregibus amicorum descendimus, reperire ex magna turba neminem possumus quocum aut iocari libere aut suspirare familiariter possimus. qua re te exspectamus, te desideramus, te iam etiam arcessimus. multa sunt enim quae me sollicitant anguntque, quae mihi videor auris nactus tuas unius ambulationis sermone exhaurire posse. [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey]. On Cicero's relationship to the women in his family cf. Treggiari 2007 Treggiari, S. 2007. Terentia, Tullia and Publilia. The Women of Cicero's Family London / New York (Women of the Ancient World) [Google Scholar]. Cf. Cic. Fam. 4.6.2: sed cum cogitarem haec mihi tecum et cum quibusdam esse communia et cum frangerem iam ipse me cogeremque illa ferre toleranter, habebam quo confugerem, ubi conquiescerem, cuius in sermone et suavitate omnis curas doloresque deponerem. nunc autem hoc tam gravi vulnere etiam illa quae consanuisse videbantur recrudescunt. non enim, ut tum me a re publica maestum domus excipiebat quae levaret, sic nunc domo maerens ad rem publicam confugere possum ut in eius bonis acquiescam. itaque et domo absum et foro, quod nec eum dolorem quem e re publica capio domus iam consolari potest nec domesticum res publica. [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey]. For a collection of Cieronian sources relating to his stay in Cilicia cf. Treggiari 1972 Treggiari, S. 1972. Cicero's Cilician Letters. Translated with an introduction and notes Ottawa (LACTOR 10) [Google Scholar]. Cf. Cic. Att. 5.20.6: nec tamen ego hanc continentiam appello, quae virtus voluptati resistere videtur; ego in vita mea nulla umquam voluptate tanta sum adfectus quanta adficior hac integritate, nec me tam fama, quae summa est, quam res ipsa delectat. quid quaeris? fuit tanti. me ipse non noram nec satis sciebam quid in hoc genere facere possem. recte πεφυσίωμαι: nihil est praeclarius. [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey]. Cf. Phil. 14.12–13: quanto enim honore, laetitia, gratulatione in hoc templum ingredi debent illi ipsi huius urbis liberatores, cum hesterno die propter eorum res gestas me ovantem et prope triumphantem populus Romanus in Capitolium domo tulerit, domum inde reduxerit! [13] is enim demum est mea quidem sententia iustus triumphus ac verus, cum bene de re publica meritis testimonium a consensu civitatis datur. nam sive in communi gaudio populi Romani uni gratulabantur, magnum iudicium, sive uni gratias agebant, eo maius, sive utrumque, mihil magnificentius cogitari potest 'tu igitur ipse de te?' dixerit quispiam. equidem invitus, sed iniuriae dolor facit me praeter consuetudinem gloriosum. nonne satis est ab hominibus virtutis ignaris gratiam bene merentibus non referri? etiam in eos quo omnis suas curas in rei publicae salute defigunt, [impetus] crimen invidia quaeretur? [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey]. Cf. Cic. Ad Brut. 1.3.2: quo quidem die magnorum meorum laborum multarumque vigiliarum cepi maximum, si modo est aliquis fructus ex solida veraque gloria. nam tantae multitudinis quantam capit urbs nostra concursus est ad me factus. a qua usque in Capitolium deductus, maximo clamore atque plausu in rostris collocatus sum. nihil est in me inane, neque enim debet; sed tamen omnium ordinum consensus, gratiarum actio gratulatioque me commovet propterea quod popularem esse in populi salute praeclarum est. sed haec te malo ab aliis. [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey]. Cf. Cic. Tusc. 5.1: virtutem ad beate vivendum se ipsa esse contentam; Fin. 3.29: ex quo intellegitur idem illud, solum bonum esse, quod honestum sit, idque esse beate vivere: honeste, id est cum virtute, vivere. – 'From this argument too one can see that what is moral is the only good, and that to live happily is to live morally, that is, with virtue.' [trans. R. Woolf]. Cf. Cic. Phil. 5.35: neque enim ullam mercedem tanta virtus praeter hanc laudis gloriaeque desiderat, qua etiam si careat, tamen sit se ipsa contenta; quamquam in memoria gratorum civium tamquam in luce posita laetatur. – 'And indeed such virtue asks for no reward save this of praise and glory, and even if that were not forthcoming, it would be content with itself; not but what it rejoices, placed in the memory of grateful countrymen as in a pool of light.' [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey]. Cf. Cic. Leg. Agr. 2.5: hoc ego tam insigne, tam singulare vestrum beneficium, Quirites, cum ad animi mei fructum atque laetitiam duco esse permagnum, tum ad curam sollicitudinemque multo maius. – 'This remarkable, extraordinary favour on your part, Romans, I consider a great source of mental enjoyment and delight, but it causes me still more anxiety and solicitude.' [trans. J.H. Freese]. Cf. Cic. Fam. 5.12.1: ardeo cupiditate incredibili neque, ut ego arbitror, reprehendenda nomen ut nostrum scriptis illustretur et celebretur tuis. quod etsi mihi saepe ostendis te esse facturum, tamen ignoscas velim huic festinationi meae. genus enim scriptorum tuorum, etsi erat semper a me vehementer exspectatum, tamen vicit opinionem meam meque ita vel cepit vel incendit ut cuperem quam celerrime res nostras monumentis commendari tuis. neque enim me solum commemoratio posteritatis ac spes quaedam immortalitatis rapit sed etiam illa cupiditas ut vel auctoritate testimoni tui vel indicio benevolentiae vel suavitate ingeni vivi perfruamur. – 'I have a burning desire, of a strength you will hardly credit but ought not, I think, to blame, that my name should gain lustre and celebrity through your works. You have often promised me, it is true, that you will comply with my wish; but I ask you to forgive my impatience. The quality of our literary performances, eagerly as I have always awaited them, has surpassed my expectation. I am captivated and enkindled. I want to see my achievements enshrined in your compositions with the minimum of delay. The thought that posterity will talk of me and the hope, one might say, of immortality hurries me on, but so too does the desire to enjoy in my lifetime the support of your weighty testimony, the evidence of your good will, and the charm of your literary talent.' [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey]. Cf. Cic. Att. 2.1.1–3: meus autem liber totum Isocrati myrothecium atque omnis eius discipulorum arculas ac non nihil etiam Aristotelia pigmenta consumpsit. … [2] quamquam ad me rescripsit iam Rhodo Posidonius se, nostrum illud ὑπόμνημα legere , quod ego ad eum ut ornatius de isdem rebus scriberet miseram, non modo non excitatum esse ad scribendum sed etiam plane deterritum. quid quaeris? conturbavi Graecam nationem. ita vulgo qui instabant ut darem sibi quod ornarent iam exhibere mihi molestiam destiterunt. tu, si tibi placuerit liber, curabis ut et Athenis sit et in ceteris oppidis Graeciae. videtur enim posse aliquid nostris rebus lucis adferre. [3] oratiunculas autem et quas postulas et pluris etiam mittam, quoniam quidem ea quae nos scribimus adulescentulorum studiis excitati te etiam delectant. … hoc totum σῶμα curabo ut habeas. et quoniam te cum scripta tum res meae delectant, isdem ex libris perspicies et quae gesserim et quae dixerim; aut ne poposcisses. ego enim tibi me non offerebam. [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey]. Cf. Cic. Att. 1.19.10: commentarium consulatus mei Graece compositum misi ad te. in quo si quid erit quod homini Attico minus Graecum eruditumque videatur, non dicam quod tibi, ut opinor, Panhormi Lucullus de suis historiis dixerat, se, quo facilius illas probaret Romani hominis esse, idcirco barbara quaedam et soloeca dispersisse; apud me si quid erit eius modi, me imprudente erit et invito. Latinum si perfecero, ad te mittam. tertium poema exspectato, ne quod genus a me ipso laudis meae praetermittatur. hic tu cave dicas, 'τίς πατέρ' αἰνήσει;' si est enim apud homines quicquam quod potius [si] laudetur, nos vituperemur, qui non potius alia laudemus; quamquam non ἐγκωμιαστικὰ sunt haec sed ἱστορικὰ quae scribimus. – 'I am sending you the sketch of my Consulship in Greek. If there is anything in it that may appear un-Greek or unscholarly to a man of Attica, I shan't say what Lucullus said to you, at Panhormus I think, about his history, that he had sprinkled a few barbarisms and solecisms to make his readers more willing to believe that it was written by a Roman. Anything of that sort in my work will be unintended and regretted. As soon as I finish a Latin version, I shall send it to you. As a third item you may expect a poem, not to leave any form of singing my own praises unattempted. Now don't say, 'Who shall applaude his sire?' If there is anything in the world better worth praising, I may fairly be censured for not preferring other subjects for panegyric – though these compositions of mine are historical rather than encomiastic.' [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey] – Cf. also Cic. Att. 1.20.6 (after 12 May 60 BCE). Cf. Cic. Att. 2.17.2: quin etiam quod est subinane in nobis et non ἀφιλόδοξον (bellum est enim sua vitia nosse), id adficitur quadam delectatione. solebat enim me pungere ne Sampsicerami merita in patriam ad annos sescentos maiora viderentur quam nostra. hac quidem cura certa iam vacuus sum. – 'Indeed a certain foolish vanity to which I am somewhat prone (it's a fine thing to know one's failings) is actually gratified in a way. I used to be piqued by the thought that a thousand years hence Sampsiceramus' services to Rome might be rated higher than mine. I can now rest easy on that score.' [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey]. Cf. Cic. Rep. 5.7: nec bene vivi sine bona re publica posset, nec esse quicquam civitate bene constituta beatius. [trans. J.E.G. Zetzel]. Cf. Cic. Att. 8.11.1: tenesne igitur moderatorem illum rei publicae quo referre velimus omnia? nam sic quinto, ut opinor, in libro loquitur Scipio: 'ut enim gubernatori cursus secundus, medico salus, imperatori victoria, sic huic moderatori rei publicae beata civium vita proposita est, ut opibus firma, copiis locuples, gloria ampla, virtute honesta sit; huius enim operis maximi inter homines atque optimi illum esse perfectorem volo.' – 'Do you remember the standard which I want my ideal statesman to apply to all his actions? This is what Scipio says in Book V, I think: 'Just as a fair voyage is the object of the pilot, health of the physician, victory of the general, so our statesman's object is the happiness of his countrymen – to promote power for their security, wealth for their abundance, fame for their dignity, virtue for their good name. This is the work I would have him accomplish, the greatest and noblest in human society.'' [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey]. For a similar distinction concerning the death of Lentulus cf. Cic. Att. 4.6.1–2 (c. 19 April 55 BCE). Cf. Cic. Brut. 4: sed quoniam perpetua quadam felicitate usus ille cessit e vita suo magis quam suorum civium tempore et tum occidit, cum lugere facilius rem publicam posset, si viveret, quam iuvare, vixitque tam diu quam licuit in civitate bene beateque vivere, nostro incommodo detrimentoque, si est ita necesse, doleamus, illius vero mortis opportunitatem benevolentia potius quam misericordia prosequamur, ut, quotienscumque de clarissimo et beatissumo viro cogitemus, illum potius quam nosmet ipsos diligere videamur. [trans. G.L. Hendrickson]. Cf. Cic. Brut. 9: itaque ei mihi videntur fortunate beateque vixisse cum in ceteris civitatibus tum maxume in nostra, quibus cum auctoritate rerumque gestarum gloria tum etiam sapientiae laude perfrui licuit. [trans. G.L. Hendrickson]. Cf. Cic. Fam. 6.1.3: reliquum est ut te id ipsum quod ego quasi consolationis loco pono maxime excruciet, commune periculum rei publicae. cuius tanti mali, quamvis docti viri multa dicant, tamen vereor ne consolatio nulla possit vera reperiri praeter illam quae tanta est quantum in cuiusque animo roboris est atque nervorum: si enim bene sentire recteque facere satis est ad bene beateque vivendum, vereor ne eum qui se optimorum consiliorum conscientia sustentare possit miserum esse nefas sit dicere. – 'Τhere remains the possibility that what I am placing almost in the light of a consolation may constitute your chief torment – the general danger to the commonwealth. For so vast an evil I fear that, much as philosophers have to say on the subject, no true consolation is to be discovered, excepting one; and the efficacy of that one is in proportion to each individual's spiritual strength and energy. If an honest heart and rectitude of conduct suffice for the good and happy life, I ask myself whether it be not blasphemy to speak of a man who can rest upon an excellent political conscience as unfortunate.' [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey]. Cf. Cic. Off. 1.3: quam ob rem magnopere te hortor, mi Cicero, ut non solum orationes meas, sed hos etiam de philosophia libros, qui iam illis fere se aequarunt, studiose legas, – vis enim maior in illis dicendi, – sed hoc quoque colendum est aequabile et temperatum orationis genus. et id quidem nemini video Graecorum adhuc contigisse, ut idem utroque in genere laboraret sequereturque et illud forense dicendi et hos quietum disputandi genus, nisi forte Demetrius Phalereus in hoc numero haberi potest, disputator subtilis, orator parum vehemens, dulcis tamen, ut Theophrasti discipulum possis agnoscere. nos autem quantum in utroque profecerimus, aliorum sit iudicium, utrumque certe secuti sumus. – 'I strongly urge you, therefore, my dear Cicero, assiduously to read not only my speeches, but also the philosophical works, which are now almost equal to them. The language is more forceful in the former, but the clam and restrained style of the latter ought also to be cultivated. Furthermore, I see that it has not happened to this day that the same Greek has laboured in both fields, pursuing both forensic oratory and also the other, quieter, sort of debating. Perhaps Demetrius of Phalerum can be counted as doing so, a man of precise argument and an orator who, though not over-vigorous, spoke so pleasantly that you can recognise him as a pupil of Theophrastus. My achievement in either field is for others to judge, but there is no doubt that I have pursued them both.' [trans. M.T. Griffin / E.M. Atkins]. Cf. Cic. Fam. 4.4.4: nam etsi a prima aetate me omnis ars et doctrina liberalis et maxime philosophia delectavit, tamen hoc studium cottidie ingravescit, credo, et aetatis maturitate ad prudentiam et iis temporum vitiis ut nulla res alia levare animum molestiis possit. – 'From my childhood I have taken pleasure in every liberal art and branch of knowledge, most of all in philosophy; but my devotion to this study grows upon me every day. I suppose I have reached an age ripe for wisdom; and the evils of the times are such that nothing else can relieve one's mind of its burdens.' [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey]. Cf. Cic. Fam. 15.4.16: extremum illud est, ut quasi diffidens rogationi meae philosophiam ad te adlegem, qua nec mihi carior ulla umquam res in vita fuit nec hominum generi maius a deis munus ullum est datum. haec igitur, quae mihi tecum communis est, societas studiorum atque artium nostrarum, quibus a pueritia dediti ac devincti soli prope modum nos philosophiam veram illam et antiquam, quae quibusdam oti esse ac desidiae videtur, in forum atque in rem publicam atque in ipsam aciem paene deduximus, tecum agit de mea laude; cui negari a Catone fas esse non puto. [trans. D.R. Shackleton Bailey]. Cf. Seel 1968 Seel, O. 1968. "Cicero und das Problem des römischen Philosophierens". In Cicero, ein Mensch seiner Zeit. Acht Vorträge zu einem geistesgeschichtlichen Phänomen Edited by: Radke, G. pp. 136–160. Berlin [Google Scholar], 144. On Cicero's philosophical views and his intention to share it with others cf. Powell 1995 Powell, J. G. F. 1995. "Introduction: Cicero's Philosophical Works and their Background". In Cicero the Philosopher. Twelve Papers Edited by: Powell, J. G. F. Edited and introduced, pp. 1–35. Oxford [Google Scholar], 31. Cf. e.g. Carcopino 1951, 76: "In the face of public opinion which admired him and listened to his words, Cicero affected to despise comfort, luxury and the softer side of life. In his De Finibus, for instance, he grandiloquently denies that either the structure of man's body or the admirable nature of man's intelligence show enjoyment to be the sole purpose for which he was born. In the De Officiis he preaches that it is base for a man to abandon himself to enervating luxury and to live in sensual delight. From his Letters, however, it is clear that he was far from heeding his own teaching. We see him eschewing inconvenience and suffering, to the point of modifying the most important political decisions rather than take the risk of being sea-sick." Cf. Lactant. Div. inst. 3.14.17–19: at quam confisus fueris philosophiae veritate, docent ad filium conposita praecepta, quibus mones philosophiae quidem praecepta noscenda, vivendum autem esse civiliter. quid tam repugnans dici potest? si noscenda sunt praecepta philosophiae, ideo utique noscenda sunt, ut recte sapienterque vivamus, vel si civiliter vivendum est, non est igitur philosophia sapientia, siquidem melius est civiliter quam philosophe vivere. nam si sapientia est quae dicitur philosophia, stulte profecto vivet qui non secundum philosophiam vivet: si autem non stulte vivit qui civiliter vivit, sequitur ut stulte vivat qui philosophe vivit. tuo itaque iudicio philosophiae stultitiae inanitatisque damnata est. – 'How much you trusted in the truth of philosophy becomes clear in the advice you gave your son, where you tell him that 'the precepts of philosophy must be learnt, but life is to be lived conventionally.' What could be more contradictory? If the precepts of philosophy are something to be learnt, that is simply so that we may live life properly and wisely; alternatively, if we must live conventionally, then philosophy is not wisdom, since it's better to live conventionally than as a philosopher. If wisdom is what is called philosophy, anyone not living in accordance with philosophy will plainly be living stupidly, whereas if anyone living conventionally is not living stupidly, it follows that anyone living by philosophy is living stupidly. Philosophy is thus condemned for stupidity and futility on your own judgment.' [trans. A. Bowen / P. Garnsey] – Cf. also Seel 1968, 156–157. Cf. Cic. Tusc. 2.12: ut enim, si grammaticum se professus quispiam barbare loquatur aut si absurde canat is qui se haberi velit musicum, hoc turpior sit, quod in eo ipso peccet cuius profitetur scientiam, sic philosophus in vitae ratione peccans hoc turpior est, quod in officio, cuius magister esse vult, labitur artemque vitae professus delinquit in vita. – 'For just as it is if a teacher claiming to be a grammarian were guilty of solecisms, or one who should wish to be regarded as a musician were to sing out of tune; the disgrace would be enhanced by the fact of his failure in the very subject of which he professed the knowledge; similarly the philosopher who fails to observe his rule of life is the more deeply disgraced, because he stumbles in the duty of which he aims at being the teacher and fails in the conduct of life though professing to give the rule of life.' [trans. J.E. King]. Cf. Cic. Dom. 97: accepi, pontifices, magnum atque incredibilem dolorem: non nego, neque istam mihi adscisco sapientiam quam non nulli in me requirebant, qui me animo nimis fracto esse atque adflicto loquebantur. an ego poteram, cum a tot rerum tanta varietate divellerer, quas idcirco praetereo quod ne nunc quidem sine fletu commemorare possum, infitiari me esse hominem et communem naturae sensum repudiare? tum vero neque illud meum factum laudabile nec beneficium ullum a me in rem publicam profectum dicerem, si quidem ea rei publicae causa reliquissem quibus aequo animo carerem, eamque animi duritiam, sicut corporis, quod cum uritur non sentit, stuporem potius quam virtutem putarem. – 'Bitter beyond all belief, gentlemen, was the anguish that I felt. I do not gainsay this, nor do I arrogate to myself that philosophic spirit, the absence of which was a disappointment to many who said that I betrayed an excessive discomfiture and prostration of mind. But, torn as I was by so many conflicting reflexions, which I pass over because even at this time I cannot dwell upon them without tears, could I have disowned my humanity, and repudiated those natural sentiments which are common to us all? In that case, I could not now describe my action as praiseworthy or say that I was the source of any benefit to the republic, if I had but abandoned, for the republic's sake, what I felt no pang at losing; I should hold that such mental apathy, like the physical apathy which does not feel the sting of fire, was brute insensibility rather than bravery.' [trans. N.H. Watts]. Cf. also Görler 1994, 1114–1115. – In a different context Görler (1994, 1117–1118) further suggests that Cicero, being an academic Sceptic, followed what he regarded as 'close to truth' personally and intuitively and that he was conscious of believing something unproven on occasion. Therefore Cicero himself would probably not have seen contradictio