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Relative Influence: Scholars, Institutions, and Academic Diplomacy in Post-War Rome. The Case of the German Libraries (1943–53)

2011; Routledge; Volume: 33; Issue: 4 Linguagem: Inglês

10.1080/07075332.2011.620739

1949-6540

Frederick Whitling,

European history and politics

Abstract This article discusses the heuristic value of the concept of academic diplomacy in the context of the agency of the directors of the so-called foreign academies in Rome, with a focus on the Swedish Institute in Rome. Academic diplomacy is discussed in the context of the return to Italy of four German scholarly libraries in Rome and Florence during and after the Second World War. The article focuses on the role of Erik Sjöqvist (1903–75), director of the Swedish Institute in Rome 1940–8. It illustrates how the practice of academic diplomacy in wartime and post-war Roman scholarly contexts combined elements of the internationale of scholarship with national traditions. Academic diplomacy arguably provides a framework for discussing both individual and national agendas and prestige, as well as ideals of international collaboration. Transnational history is approached and discussed here through networks of individual scholars in the microcosm of foreign (as well as domestic) academies in Rome. Keywords: Romerelative influenceacademic diplomacyforeign academiesGerman librariesErik SjöqvistThe Swedish Institute in Rome Notes 1. Cf. Alan Cassels, in A. Cassels, ed., Italian Foreign Policy 1918–1945. A Guide to Research and Research Materials (Wilmington, 1991), 2. 2. The concept of academic diplomacy has been introduced by the author. Cf. F. Whitling, ‘The Unione in 1946: Reflections on Academic Diplomacy and International Collaboration’, Unione Internazionale degli Istituti di Archeologia Storia e Storia dell'Arte in Roma. Annuario 50 (2008), 203–18. See also F. Whitling, `The Western Way. Academic Diplomacy: Foreign Academies and the Swedish Institute in Rome, 1935–1953' (Ph.D. dissertation, European University Institute, 2010). 3. For AIAC and the Unione, see, for example E. Billig, ‘Habent sua fata libelli. Swedish notes on the problem of the German scientific libraries in Italy 1943–1948’, Opuscula Romana, xviii (1990), 221–235; E. Billig, C. Nylander and P. Vian (eds), ‘Nobile munus’. Origini e primi sviluppi dell’Unione Internazionale degli Istituti di Archeologia Storia e Storia dell’Arte in Roma (1946–1953). Per la storia della collaborazione internazionale a Roma nelle ricerche umanistiche nel secondo dopoguerra (Roma, 1996); P. Vian (ed), ‘Hospes eras, civem te feci'. Italiani e non Italiani a Roma nell'ambito delle ricerche umanistiche (Rome, 1996); P. Vian (ed), Speculum Mundi. Roma centro internazionale di ricerche umanistiche (Rome, 1993); J. B. Ward-Perkins, ‘The International Union of Institutes of Archaeology, History and History of Art in Rome and the International Association for Classical Archaeology’, in Aspectes des Etudes Classiques. Actes du Colloque del la F.I.E.C. (Bruxelles: 1977), 53–59; Whitling, ‘The Unione in 1946’; Whitling, ‘The Western Way’; A. Windholz, ‘Et in academia ego. Accademie straniere a Roma come luoghi di personale ricerca artistica e rappresentazione nazionale (1750–1914)’, Unione Internazionale degli Istituti di Archeologia Storia e Storia dell'Arte in Roma, Annuario 50 (2008), 197–201; A. Windholz, Et in Academia Ego. Ausländische Akademien in Rom zwischen künstlerischer Standortbestimmung und nationaler Repräsentation (Regensburg, 2008). 4. Cf. http://www.aiac.org and http://www.unioneinternazionale.it/index.html. 5. See, for example, A. Esch, ‘Die deutschen Institutsbibliotheken nach dem Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs und die Rolle der Unione degli Istituti: Internationalisierung, Italianisierung – oder Rückgabe an Deutschland?,’ in M. Matheus (ed), Deutsche Forschungs- und Kulturinstitute in Rom in der Nachkriegszeit (Tübingen, 2007); and Whitling, ‘The Western Way’, 13–23, 258–515. 6. Cf. Whitling, ‘The Unione in 1946’. The concept has been discussed at some length in my doctoral dissertation. Cf. Whitling, ‘The Western Way’, 23–7, 246–57, 530–4. 7. See, for example, G. L. Anderson, Issues and Conflicts: Studies in Twentieth Century American Diplomacy (Lawrence, 1959); R. T. Arndt, The First Resort of Kings. American Cultural Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century (Washington, 2005) and M. C. Cummings, ‘Cultural Diplomacy and the United States Government: A Survey’ (Washington, D.C., 2003). For ‘science diplomacy’, cf. P. J. Dobriansky, ‘The Art of Science Diplomacy,’ in U.S. Department of State: State Magazine, 502 (2006) (http://www.scribd.com/doc/32412124/State-Magazine-June-2006). 8. See K. Jarausch ( http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-german&month=0601&week=c&msg=LPkNHirCm1xgSZQKHOGRXQ&user=&pw=, 30 June 2011). Jarausch furthermore discusses ‘the plasticity of the word “nation” due to its frequent combination with other prefixes’: ‘[…] “trans”-national is different from “inter”-national, because the political science understanding of the latter term connotes relations between states rather than developments cutting across them. Similarly, the adjective “intra”-national focuses on internal issues rather than on foreign relations. Moreover, the descriptor “multi”-national commonly indicates the involvement of many nations whereas the pair “pre”-national and “post”-national serve to denote chronological periods as well as mental horizons before and after the nation state’. Cf. K. K. Patel ( http://www.transnationalhistory.com/discussion.aspx?id=1740): ‘If used properly, the transnational scalpel cuts across all boundaries and dissects transnational connections just about everywhere. Finally, research sailing under the banner of transnational has adopted many different strategies and methods, from comparative history over transfer studies to network analysis and other approaches – or, in the best of all worlds, a sound combination of several such takes.’ 9. For similar discussions, as well as for example transnational history in relation to cultural transfer processes and histoire croisée, cf. http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-german&month=0601&week=c&msg=LPkNHirCm1xgSZQKHOGRXQ&user=&pw=.Cf. also http://iantyrrell.wordpress.com/what-is-transnational-history/: ‘The term is relatively new. Its vogue in the 1990s is closely associated with work in American history. [Transnational history as defined and advocated by David Thelen, Thomas Bender, and others concerns the movement of peoples, ideas, technologies, and institutions across national boundaries.] One might fruitfully compare the history of two or more countries, it was argued, but comparative history tended to treat national borders as a given. According to the new view, one must be aware that what constitutes the spaces, institutions, and traditions of nations has changed over time. Transnational history aimed to put national developments in context, and to explain the nation in terms of its cross-national influences. [The field of transnational history] has a prospect of transforming scholarship today precisely because it chimes in with perceived changes in the world economy and social order associated with globalisation.’ See also for example A. Iriye and P.-Y. Saunier (eds), The Palgrave Dictionary of Transnational History. From the Mid-19th Century to the Present Day. Palgrave Macmillan Transnational History (Basingstoke, 2009), and H.-G. Haupt and J. Kocka (eds), Comparative and Transnational History: Central European Approaches and New Perspectives (New York and Oxford, 2009). 10. Cf. Revel, ed., Jeux d'échelles. La micro-analyse à l'expérience; M. Peltonen, ‘Clues, Margins, and Monads: The Micro-Macro Link in Historical Research’, History and Theory, xl (2001), 347–59; S. Gylfi Magnusson, ‘The Singularization of History: Social History and Microhistory within the Postmodern State of Knowledge’, Journal of Social History, xxxvi (2003), 701–35; J. Lepore, ‘Historians Who Love Too Much: Reflections on Microhistory and Biography’, Journal of American History, lxxxviii (2001), 129–44; S. Cerutti, ‘Microhistory: Social Relations versus Cultural Models?,’ in A. M. Castrén, M. Lonkila and M. Peltonen (eds), Between Sociology and History. Essays on Microhistory, Collective Action, and Nation-Building (Helsinki, 2004). 11. Cf. for example the conference Rewriting Histories – The Transnational Challenge at the Centre for Transnational History, University College London, 30 April–1 May 2010. In his keynote lecture (with the same title), director Axel Korner discussed ‘Five Thoughts on Transnational History’, as follows: (1) ‘Transnational history is not a doctrine’; (2) ‘Transnational history is not a methodology’; (3) ‘Transnationality challenges the way we study ideas and their reception’; (4) ‘Transnational approaches are relevant not only for historians of modern nation states’; and (5) Transnational history and the ideology of nation states’ ( http://www.ucl.ac.uk/cth/axelsvideo). Cf. also Whitling, ‘The Western Way’, 13–23, 27–30, 64–86, 535–41. 12. Cf. J.-C. Passeron and J. Revel (eds), Penser par cas (Paris, 2005); C. C. Ragin and H. S. Becker (eds), What is a Case? Exploring the Foundation of Social Inquiry (Cambridge, 1992); J. Revel (ed), Jeux d'échelles. La micro-analyse à l'expérience and J. R. Feagin, A. M. Orum and G. Sjoberg (eds), A Case for the Case Study (Chapel Hill and London, 1991). 13. See, for example, K. Bittel, et al. (eds), Beiträge zur Geschichte des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts 1929 bis 1979 (Mainz: 1979), vol. 1; H. Cools and H. de Valk, Insitutum Neerlandicum MCMIV–MMIV. Honderd jaar Nederlands Instituut te Rome (Hilversum, 2004); F. W. Deichmann, ‘Vom internationalen Privatverein zur preussischen Staatsanstalt’, in Das Deutsche Archäologische Institut, Geschichte und Dokumente (Mainz, 1986); H. Goldbrunner, Von der Casa Tarpea zur Via Aurelia Antica. Zur Geschichte der Bibliothek des Deutschen Historischen Instituts in Rom, Das Deutsche Historische Institut in Rom 1888–1988 (Tübingen: 1990); W. A. Linker and J. Max (eds), American Academy in Rome. Celebrating a Century (New York, 1995); B. Magnusson (ed), Humanist vid Medelhavet. Reflektioner och studier samlade med anledning av Svenska Institutet i Roms 75-årsjubileum (Stockholm, 2002); C. E. Östenberg (ed), Svenska Institutet i Rom 1926–1976 (Rome, 1976); R. T. Scott, P. Rosenthal and V. Emiliani, The Academy & the Forum. One Hundred Years in the Eternal City (New York, 1996); C. Thoenes, ‘Geschichte des Instituts’, in Ulrike Emrich (ed), Max-Planck-Gesellschaft. Berichte und Mitteilungen (Rome, 1991); L. Valentine and A. Valentine, The American Academy in Rome, 1894–1969 (Charlottesville, 1973); Vian, Speculum Mundi and A. Wallace-Hadrill, ed., The British School at Rome. One Hundred Years (London, 2001). Cf. also Whitling, ‘The Western Way’, 13–2, 64–121. 14. Cf. Whitling, ‘The Western Way’; and H. Blanck, ‘The Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica’, in N. de Haan, M. Eickhoff and M. Schwegman (eds), Archaeology and National Identity in Italy and Europe 1800–1950 (Turnhout, 2008), 63–78. For the post-war archaeological ‘opening’ of Italy, cf. Whitling, ‘The Western Way’, 64–86, 172–90, 324–36, particularly 178–90. 15. Cf. A. Blennow and F. Whitling, `Italian dreams, Roman longings: Vilhelm Lundström and the first Swedish philological-archaeological course in Rome, 1909', Opuscula Annual of the Swedish Institutes at Athens and Rome 4, 2011, 143–58. Opuscula (forthcoming). 16. Sjöqvist's PhD thesis was published as E. Sjöqvist, Problems of the Late Cypriot Bronze Age (Stockholm, 1940). 17. SIR annual report 1943–4, 1. 18. Cf. Whitling, ‘The Western Way’, 252–7. 19. ‘Memorandum addressed to the United Nations Organization by the International Union of Institutes of Archaeology, History and History of Art in Rome’ (1946). EFR archives [Rome], box ‘Union 1950–1955’, files ‘Union 1950’ and ‘Union 1955’, appendix 9. 20. Cf. Ernest De Wald to Alfred Van Buren, 9 Nov. 1945. R[iks]a[rkivet, Stockholm], Svenska Institutets i Rom arkiv, III:A:4. See also ‘Memorandum Concerning the Austrian Library in Rome’, Sjöqvist, 5 Dec. 1945. RA, Svenska Institutets i Rom arkiv, III:A:5. 21. For the history of the Kunsthistorisches Institut, see for example H. W. Hubert, Das Kunsthistorische Institut in Florenz. Von der Gründung bis zum hundertjährigen Jubiläum (1897–1997) (Florence, 1997) and M. Seidel (ed), Storia dell'arte e politica culturale intorno al 1900. La fondazione dell'Istituto Germanico di Storia dell'Arte di Firenze (Venezia, 1999). 22. DAIR archives [Rome], file ‘Berichte Rom, Jahresberichte 1943 1944/5’. Jahresbericht 1943. 23. Siegfried Fuchs to H. W. Frey. Bundesarchiv, Berlin, R/4901/14064. See also T. Fröhlich, ‘Das Deutsche Archäologische Institut in Rom in der Kriegs- und Nachkriegszeit bis zur Wiederöffnung 1953’, in M. Matheus (ed), Deutsche Forschungs- und Kulturinstitute in Rom in der Nachkriegszeit (Tübingen, 2007) and T. Fröhlich, ‘The Study of the Lombards and the Ostrogoths at the German Archaelogical Institute of Rome, 1937–1943’, in N. de Haan, M. Eickhoff and M. Schwegman (ed), Archaeology and National Identity in Italy and Europe 1800–1950, Fragmenta. Journal of the Royal Netherlands Institute in Rome (Turnhout, 2008). 24. Cf. DAIR archives, file ‘Berichte Rom, Jahresberichte 1943 1944/5’. Jahresbericht 1943; as well as file ‘Vierteljahresberichte Rom 1927–1944’. ‘Vierteljahresbericht des archäologischen Instituts des Deutschen Reiches Zweigstelle Rom 1. Oktober–31. Dezember 1943’. See also Fröhlich, ‘Das Deutsche Archäologische Institut in Rom in der Kriegs- und Nachkriegszeit bis zur Wiederöffnung 1953’, 153–6. 25. Leo Bruhns (1884–1957) was director of the Bibliotheca Hertziana 1934–43. He succeeded Ernst Steinmann (director 1920–34). Steinmann had selected Bruhns himself as his successor. Cf. C. Thoenes, ‘Geschichte des Instituts’, in U. Emrich (ed), Max-Planck-Gesellschaft. Berichte und Mitteilungen (Rome, 1991), 9–35. 26. ‘Pro Memoria recording the events preceding the transportation of the German scientific libraries from Rome to Germany – Confidential’. Sjöqvist, n.d. (between June 1944 and May 1945, possibly 25 Oct. 1944), RA, Svenska Institutets i Rom arkiv, III:A:5. The promemoria is quoted in full as appendix 1 in Whitling, ‘The Western Way’, 579–86. 27. Cf. Billig, Nylander and Vian, ‘Nobile munus’, 6–7. 28. S. L. Dyson, In Pursuit of Ancient Pasts. A History of Classical Archaeology in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (New Haven and London, 2006), 211–12. 29. Von Gerkan to Sjöqvist, 17 Aug. 1943, RA, Svenska Institutets i Rom arkiv, III:A:5. 30. ‘Pro Memoria recording the events preceding the transportation of the German scientific libraries from Rome to Germany – Confidential’. Sjöqvist, n.d. (between June 1944 and May 1945, possibly 25 Oct. 1944), RA, Svenska Institutets i Rom arkiv, III:A:5. 31. DAIR archives, file ‘Vierteljahresberichte Rom 1927–1944’. ‘Zweigstelle Rom Tätigkeitsbericht im III. Viertel des Haushaltjahres 1944 1. Oktober – 31. Dezember 1944’; as well as file ‘Vierteljahresberichte Rom 1927–1944’. ‘Vierteljahresbericht über die Tätigkeit der Zweigstelle Rom im IV. Viertel des Jahres 1944/45’. 32. The date is given by Erland Billig (Billig, ‘Habent sua fata libelli’, 222). According to the Vatican, the libraries left Rome as early as Dec. 1943. Cf. Biblioteche ospiti della Vaticana nella seconda guerra mondiale col catalogo dei cimeli esposti nel Salone Sistino (Città del Vaticano, 1945), 9. Hermann Goldbrunner claims that the libraries departed in the beginning of Jan. 1944 (Goldbrunner, Von der Casa Tarpea zur Via Aurelia Antica. Zur Geschichte der Bibliothek des Deutschen Historischen Instituts in Rom, Das Deutsche Historische Institut in Rom 1888–1988, 63). According to Reinhard Elze and Bernard Andreae, the libraries left Rome in either Jan. or Feb. 1944 (Vian, Speculum Mundi, 174, 197). Cf. Billig, Nylander and Vian, ‘Nobile munus’, 7–8. See also Whitling, ‘The Unione in 1946’, 203–4. 33. Sjöqvist to Einar Gjerstad, 11 Jan. 1944. RA, Svenska Institutets i Rom arkiv, III:A:3. 34. ‘Pro Memoria recording the events preceding the transportation of the German scientific libraries from Rome to Germany – Confidential’. Sjöqvist, n.d. (between June 1944 and May 1945, possibly 25 Oct. 1944). RA, Svenska Institutets i Rom arkiv, III:A:5. 35. Bernard Berenson to Paul Bonner (US embassy, Rome), 17 Feb. 1948. The Berenson Archive [The Harvard University Center for Italian Renaissance Studies, Villa I Tatti, courtesy of the President and Fellows of Harvard College]. See also A. Esch, ‘Die deutschen Institutsbibliotheken nach dem Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs und die Rolle der Unione degli Istituti’, 89. 36. ‘Protesta dell’Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei per le assurde rivendicazioni di alcuni studiosi tedeschi’, n.d. (1950) and letter of protest to the Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs by Italian scholars (Gaetano De Sanctis et al.), n.d. (1950), [Palazzo Venezia, Rome], AIAC archives. 37. ‘Protesta dell’Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei per le assurde rivendicazioni di alcuni studiosi tedeschi’, n.d. (1950), AIAC archives. 38. ‘Promemoria sulle Biblioteche ex-Germaniche’, n.d. (1950–1). EFR archives, box ‘Union 1946–1949’. File ‘Historique. L'UNION et les Bibliothèques ex-Allemandes, textes et Documents 1952–1953’. 39. Grenier to French Ambassador to Italy Jacques Fouques-Duparc, 3 July 1951. EFR archives, box ‘Union 1950–1955’. File ‘Union 1950’. 40. Heydenreich to Berenson, 19 Aug. 1945, The Berenson Archive. 41. Berenson to Heydenreich, 18 June 1944, The Berenson Archive. 42. See for example E. Simpson, ed. The Spoils of War: World War II and its Aftermath: The Loss, Reappearance and Recovery of Cultural Property (New York, 1997)’ L. H. Nicholas, The Rape of Europa: the Fate of Europe's Treasures in the Third Reich and the Second World War (New York, 1994); and M. J. Kurtz, Nazi Contraband: American Policy on the Return of European Cultural Treasures, 1945–1955 (New York, 1985). For legal references regarding the international protection of cultural property, see W. Fiedler and S. Turner (eds), Bibliographie zum Recht des Internationalen Kulturgüterschutzes = Bibliography on the Law of the International Protection of Cultural Property (Berlin, 2003). 43. See telegram (in English), Axel Boëthius to Sjöqvist, 30 Nov. 1945: ‘After consultation Stockholm positiv[e] advice accept presidentship [sic] being honour regarding you personally not institut[e]’, RA, Svenska Institutets i Rom arkiv, III:A:2. 44. Cf. Whitling, ‘The Western Way’, 451–63. 45. Sjöqvist to the board of the SIR, n.d. (After 16 Feb. 1946 but before 23 April 1946). RA, Svenska Institutets i Rom arkiv, III:A:5. 46. Cf. F. Whitling, ‘Mare Nostrum: Einar Gjerstad och Svenska Institutet i Athen, 1945–1948’, Hellenika, cxxxiii (2010), 14. See also Whitling, ‘The Western Way’, 360–7. 47. Cf. memorandum regarding AIAC and the Unione, Jean Bayet, 25 Jan. 1953. EFR archives, box ‘Union 1946–1949’. File ‘Union/Association, textes de base, liaisons internationales’. 48. See for example Billig, Nylander and Vian, ‘Nobile munus’, 15–16. 49. Grenier to ‘M. Auger, Directeur de l’Enseignement Supérieure’, 27 June [1946]. Cf. draft letter (Grenier to Auger), 23 Feb. 1946. EFR archives, box ‘Union 1946–1949’. File ‘Union/Association, textes de base, liaisons internationales’. 50. Cf. ‘Unione Internazionale degli Istituti di Archeologia, Storia e Storia dell'Arte in Roma. Verbali assemblee 6.2.1946 – 27.6.1958’, 5–6. 51. Cf. Ernest De Wald to Sjöqvist, 11 Nov. 1945. RA, Svenska Institutets i Rom arkiv, III:A:4. 52. Cf. ‘Verbali Unione’, 11. For a more extensive account of the discussions regarding the German libraries 1946–53, see Whitling, ‘The Western Way’, 451–515. 53. Cf. a letter from Sjöqvist to Einar Gjerstad in which Sjöqvist felt that he was ‘now forced to deal with the German libraries’, but that this might be useful in the light of his application for the Swedish library position. Sjöqvist to Gjerstad, 1 March 1946. Samling Gjerstad, Einar, Lund University Library, Sweden. 54. For the composition of the board and the ‘executive committee’ of the Unione in 1946, see Whitling, ‘The Western Way’, 410–11. 55. Bernard Berenson to Paul Bonner, 17 Feb. 1948. Bonner was furthermore in close contact with Morey (they were both at the US embassy). Cf. Bonner to Berenson, 19 Feb. 1948, The Berenson Archive. It is possible that Berenson's influence in this matter has been somewhat exaggerated, and that the US embassy in Rome (through Bonner and Morey) in fact supported the ‘internationalisation’ of the libraries and the Unione approach (to a large extent Morey's brainchild). Cf. Whitling, ‘The Western Way’, 464–79 (particularly 471–3). 56. Cf. Unione statutes (registered 29 Oct. 1949, signed 8 Nov. 1949), §12–14. EFR archives, box ‘Union 1946–1949’. File ‘Union/Association, textes de base, liaisons internationales’. 57. College Art Journal, xi (1951–2), 143–4, in EFR archives, box ‘Union 1950–1955’. File ‘Union 1951–1952’. 58. Cf. Whitling, ‘The Western Way’, 392–44, 464–515. See also A. Esch, ‘Die deutschen Institutsbibliotheken nach dem Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs und die Rolle der Unione degli Istituti: Internationalisierung, Italianisierung – oder Rückgabe an Deutschland?’ After the breakdown of the four powers treaty in August 1949, the four libraries were collectively denominated ‘international libraries of archaeology, history and history of art’ (until 1953). They were referred to individually as the ‘international library of classical archaeology, Rome’ (DAIR), the ‘international historical library, Rome’ (DHI), the ‘international Hertziana library, Rome’, and the ‘international art historical library, Florence’. Cf. Unione statutes (registered 29 Oct. 1949, signed 8 Nov. 1949), §12–14. EFR archives, box ‘Union 1946–1949’. File ‘Union/Association, textes de base, liaisons internationales’. 59. ‘Note sur les Bibliothèques ci-devant allemandes d’Italie et leur administration par l’Union internationale des Instituts romains d’archéologie d’histoire et d’historie de l’Art’ (Grenier), Dec. 1950. EFR archives, box ‘Union 1946–1949’. File ‘Historique. L'UNION et les Bibliothèques ex-Allemandes, textes et Documents 1952–1953’; and box ‘Union 1950–1955’. File ‘Union 1950’: ‘[…] depuis un an la question des bibliothèques ci-devant allemandes est malheureusement devenue une question politique.’ 60. For a discussion of German perspectives, the individual scholars involved and the commission for German scientific work abroad (Der Kommission für die deutsche wissenschaftliche Arbeit im Ausland), see Whitling, ‘The Western Way’, 479–515. 61. John Bryan Ward-Perkins to Jean Bayet, 29 March 1953. EFR archives, box ‘Union 1946–1949’. File ‘Historique. L'UNION et les Bibliothèques ex-Allemandes, textes et Documents 1952–1953’. 62. Adrien Bruhl, 10 May 1950. ‘Note pour Monsieur Vieillefond’ (Cultural Counsellor at the French embassy in Rome). EFR archives, box ‘Union 1950–1955’. File ‘Union 1951–1952’. Cf. Grenier to ‘M. Vieillefond Conseiller Culturel’, 25 Nov. 1950 (as well as 2 Nov. and 4 Nov. 1950). EFR archives, box ‘Union 1946–1949’. File ‘Historique. L'UNION et les Bibliothèques ex-Allemandes, textes et Documents 1952–1953’. 63. French Ambassador to Italy Jacques Fouques-Duparc to Georges Bidault at the French foreign ministry, 6 Feb. 1953. EFR archives, box ‘Union 1946–1949’. File ‘Historique. L'UNION et les Bibliothèques ex-Allemandes, textes et Documents 1952–1953’. The libraries were returned to German control during the Spring of 1953. Cf. Unione session, 20 April 1953: ‘Trasferimento delle Biblioteche ai Tedeschi’. Cf. ‘Promemoria for conclusion of transfer of libraries’ (Ward-Perkins), 15 May 1953. EFR archives, box ‘1946–1949’. File ‘Historique. L'UNION et les Bibliothèques ex-Allemandes, textes et Documents 1952–1953’. 64. Memorandum on the restitution of the German Libraries and the future of the Union’, Laurance Roberts and Ward-Perkins, 12 Nov. 1952. EFR archives, box ‘Union 1946–1949’. File ‘Historique. L'UNION et les Bibliothèques ex-Allemandes, textes et Documents 1952–1953’. 65. Ibid. 66. Memorandum (Grenier), 31 Aug. 1951. EFR archives, box ‘Union 1946–1949’. File ‘Historique. L'UNION et les Bibliothèques ex-Allemandes, textes et Documents 1952–1953’. 67. Ibid. 68. Ibid. 69. For a discussion of representational influence, see Whitling, ‘The Western Way’, 451–5, 530–34. 70. Cf. M.-A. Kaeser, ‘Biography as Microhistory. The Relevance of Private Archives for Writing the History of Archaeology,’ in N. Schlanger and J. Nordbladh, Archives (ed) Ancestors, Practices: Archaeology in the Light of its History (New York and Oxford, 2008), 1. 71. M.-A. Kaeser, ‘Biography as Microhistory. The Relevance of Private Archives for Writing the History of Archaeology’, in N. Schlanger and J. Nordbladh (eds), Archives, Ancestors, Practices: Archaeology in the Light of its History (New York and Oxford, 2008). Cf. also M. Barbanera, Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli. Biografia ed epistolario di un grande archeologo (Milan, 2003); F. Filippi (ed), Ricostruire l'Antico prima del virtuale. Italo Gismondi. Un architetto per l'archeologia (1887–1974), Archivio storico a Palazzo Altemps, 1 (Rome, 2007); and P. Fortini (ed), Giacomo Boni e le istituzioni straniere. Apporti alla formazione delle discipline storico-archeologiche, Documenti, 2 (Rome, 2008). 72. Cf. T. Zeldin, An Intimate History of Humanity (London, 1994), 160.